\-> 


JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


iilil  llllliliiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiii  II 
9090  013  400 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinari 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Mei 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 


LIVES  rocK 

ON  THE  FARM 

BY 

WILLIAM  DIETRICH,  B.  8.  A.,  M.  S. 

HEAD    OF   THE   DEPARTMENT  OF  ANIMAL  AND    DAIRY  HUSBANDRY. 
UNIVERSITY    OF    MINNESOTA,    CROOKSTON  BRANCH 

ILLUSTRATED 

PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.  B.  SAUNDERS  COMPANY 

1017 

) 


Copyright,  igi?.  by  W.  B.  Saiindcrs  Company 


PRINTED     IN     AMERICA 

PRESS     OF 

W.     B.     SAUNDERS     COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 


Tm-:  pui'poso  of  tliis  voliimo  is  to  t>;ive  information  to  those 
who  wish  to  improve  tlieir  conchtion  l)y  means  of  livestock,  to 
farmers  genei-ally,  and  es]:)ecially  to  those  interested  in  Hve- 
stock  farmin<2;  and  in  ])ree(hno;.  It  is  intended  also  to  serve 
as  a  text-book  in  Animal  Husbandry  in  aj2;ricultural  schools, 
in  high  schools  and  in  elementary  courses  in  colleges  of 
agriculture. 

The  book  is  not  a  treatise  on  nutrition,  nor  is  it  primarily 
a  treatise  on  swine  husbandr}-.  The  latter  sul)ject  is  covered 
by  the  author's  ''Swine,"  published  by  the  Breeders'  Gazette, 
of  Chicago.  It  is  not,  again,  a  book  of  formulae.  On  the  con- 
trary, its  prime  object  is  a  discussion  of  the  care,  feeding  and 
management  of  farm  animals.  In  short,  it  deals  in  a  simple 
and  practical  way  with  the  problems  which  must  be  met  and 
handled  properly  every  day  in  order  to  make  live-stock  farm- 
ing successful.  It  also  touches  upon  the  various  breeds  of 
farm  animals  as  well  as  the  subject  of  poultry. 

The  care  and  feeding  of  animals  is  not  merely  a  mechanical 
oi-  mathematical  problem  in  which  two  plus  two  always  equals 
four.  It  has  to  do  with  life,  not  merely  with  the  physical 
mechanism.  While  many  of  the  factors  may  be  deteimined 
mathematically,  such  as  the  amounts  of  the  different  nutrients 
— protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  mineral  matter,  and  water,  for 
example — there  are  other  factors  of  equal  importance  to  be 
considered  and  it  is  these  that  will  be  emphasized  in  the  follow- 
ing pages.  They  are  fundamental  to  the  successful  handling 
of  all  farm  animals. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  to  W.  P.  Kirkwood,  editor  of  the 
Department  of  Agi-iculture,  of  the  University  of  Minnesota, 
for  assistance  in  editing  the  manuscript  of  this  book. 

The  chapter  on  poultry  was  written  by  C.  E.  Brown,  for 

11 


12  PREFACE 

many  years  head  of  the  poultry  department,  Northwest  School 
of  Agriculture  and  Experiment  Station  at  Crookston,  one  of 
the  schools  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  University 
of  Minnesota. 

Wm.  Dietrich. 
Crookston,  Minnesota, 
Srplemher,  1917. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAOE 

Grain  Farming 17 

Soil,  17;  The  Business  of  Grain  Farming,  24. 

CHAPTER   II 

Livestock    Farming 20 

Advantages  of  Livestock  Fanning,  28;  Fences,  31;  The  Econ- 
omy of  Livestock,  36;  Livestock  Necessitates  Growing  Forage 
Crops,  37;  Returns  More  Certain.  40;  Nature  of  Farm 
Problem,  41. 

CHAPTER  III 

Farm  Animals •">! 

Feeding,  53;  Quality,  55;  Wealth  of  Flesh,  50;  Constitution, 
57;  Length  of  Body,  58;  Form,  63;  Condition,  64;  Tempera- 
ment, 65. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Feeds  for  Animals C"*^^^ 

Protein,  67;  Carbohydrates,  70;  Fat  in  a  Ration,  73;  Mineral 
Matter,  76;  Water,  77;  Air  or  Oxygen,  80;  Classification  of 
Feeds,  82;  Other  Factors  in  Feeding,  84. 

CHAPTER     V 

Animal  Breeding 01 

The  Man,  91;  Reproduction,  93;  Heredity,  94;  Variation, 
95;  Selection,  96;  Environment,  98;  Breeding  Practice,  100; 
Gestation,  102;  Breeding  for  sex,  103;  Starting  a  Livestock 
Farm,  104. 

13 


14  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

PACK 

Houses 107 

Horso  Environment,  107;  Horso  Fcodinfz;,  109;  Care  of  Horses, 
112;  Types  of  Horses,  113;  Draft  Horse  Conformation,  114; 
Tiie  Roadster  Type,  120;  Ponies,  123;  Coach  and  Other 
Horses,  124;  Mules,  124;  Breeds  of  Heavy  Horses,  125; 
lireeds  (.f  Eij^lit  Horses.  120;  Horse  Hreedin-^,  131. 

(UIAP'I  ER  Vll 

Cattlk 131 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Thk   Daiuv  Cow 13() 

Feeding  Cows,  137;  The  Cow  in  Outline,  140;  Shelter  for 
Cows,  145;  Milking,  140;  How  to  (iet  a  Good  Cow,  140; 
.Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle,  153;  The  Silo,  158;  Manure,  Kil; 
Tuberculosis,  1()1;  Abortion,  164;  Shoidd  Cows  Freshen  in 
Spring  or  F\all?,  165;  Building  uj)  a  Herd.  1  ()(');  Du;il-i)urp()sc 
Cattle,  167;  Bloat,  160. 

CHAPTER  IX 

Beef  Cattle .170 

l^reeds  of  lieef  Cattle,  174. 

CHAPTER  X 

Sheep ' 178 

Wool,  178;  Other  Characteristics,  180;  Sheep  Feeding,  182; 
Types  and  lireeds  of  Sheep,  185;  Fine  Wool  Sheep,  185; 
Mutton  Sheep,  188. 

CHAPTER.  XI 

SwiXE 103 

The  Herd  Boar,  104;  How  to  (iet  a  ( iood  Sow,  105;  Herd 
Management,  196;  Tyjx'  in  Swine,  203;  Breeds  of  Swine,  20(i; 
Swine  Feeding,  211. 


('(INTENTS  15 

(CHAPTER,  XII 

Poultry 213 

The  Importanco  of  Exorcise  for  Fowls,  214;  Fords  and 
Fooding,  214;  Fattening  Poultry,  216;  The  Incubator,  217; 
The  Sitting  Hen,  217;  Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatohing,  218; 
Preserving  Eggs,  218;  Poultry  Houses,  218;  IVIites  and  Lioo, 
224;  Types  and  Breeds  of  Poidtry,  224;  Turkeys,  220 ;  Ducks, 
227;  Geese,  229;  Guineas,  230;  Peafowl,  230;  Pigeons,  231. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Scientific  Swink  Feeding 232 

Explanation  of  Terms,  232;  Xaturo  of  Swine-feeding  Prob- 
lem, 233;  Mineral  Matter,  235;  Protein,  236;  Carbohydrate, 
244;  Ether  Extract  or  Fat,  246;  AAator,  246;  Exercise,  248; 
Bulk  in  Ration,  248;  Classification  of  Feeds,  249;  Selection  of 
Feeds,  253;  Method  of  Calculating  a  Ration,  254;  Suggested 
Approximate  Ration,  259;  Off-hand  Feeding,  260;  Method 
of  Feeding,  261. 

Index 263 


LIVESTOCK  ON  THE    FARM 


CHAPTER  I 

GRAIN  FARMING 

A  grain  farmer  is  one  whose  interest  centers  in  the  produc- 
tion and  marketing  of  some  kind,  or  kinds,  of  grain.  He 
converts  the  plant  food  of  the  soil  into  corn,  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, flax,  or  some  other  grain  and  removes  it  from  the  farm. 
His  soil  each  year  is  made  poorer  by  the  amount  of  plant  food 
he  sells. 

SOIL 

Soil  originated  from  the  breaking  down  of  the  various  kinds 
of  rock  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  rocks  were  produced 
at  the  time  the  earth  was  formed.  The  agencies  or  forces  by 
which  rocks  are  reduced  or  ground  up  to  make  soil  are  water, 
air,  wind,  freezing,  thawing,  etc. 

Action  of  Water  on  Soil  Making. — Water  reduces  rock  to 
soil  particles  by  friction  and  by  its  power  as  a  solvent.  When 
water  runs  over  a  rock  surface  it  wears  the  rock  down  either 
by  the  friction  of  the  water  itself  or  by  the  friction  of  different 
pieces  of  rock.  As  a  solvent  water  acts  just  as  it  does  on 
sugar  or  salt.  This  action  is,  however,  quite  slow.  But  when 
water  is  charged  with  acid  or  alkali,  as  it  sometimes  is,  the 
process  of  dissolution  is  materially  hastened. 

Air  in  Soil  Formation. — Air  contains  carbonic  acid  and  this 
has  a  solvent  action  on  the  rock  particles  with  which  it  comes 
into  contact.  When  the  air  is  in  motion  in  the  form  of  wind 
it  also  causes  friction  upon  the  rock  and  soil  particles  just  as 
water  does.  Thus,  water  and  wind  work  in  much  the  same 
way  in  reducing  rock  to  soil  particles  and  in  reducing  coarser 
particles  to  finer  ones. 

17 


18 


LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 


GRAIN    FARMING  19 

Temperature  in  Soil  Formation. — Freezing  and  tliawing 
produce  slight  motion  among  different  particles  of  rock  and 
soil.  This  results  in  friction  similar  to  that  produced  by 
water  and  wind.  But  water  in  freezing  expands.  Therefore, 
when  water  settles  in  a  crevice  and  freezes,  it  splits  the  pieces 
apart.  When  a  concrete  sidewalk,  in  a  climate  where  the  tem- 
perature goes  below  freezing  in  winter,  becomes  cracked,  the 
crack  constantl}^  becomes  wider.  Thus,  when  freezing  and 
thawing  occur  at  short  intervals,  they  are  forces  of  consider- 
able importance  in  the  making  of  soil.  If  a  hollow  iron  ball 
be  filled  with  water  and  allowed  to  freeze  it  will  break.  This 
will  occur  although  the  ball  is  of  such  strength  that  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  break  it  with  a  sledge  hammer. 

A  sandy  soil  is  composed  of  comparatively  large  particles, 
coming  from  rock  of  one  kind;  while  clay  is  made  up  of  very 
fine  particles  coming  from  another  kind  of  rock. 

Humus  in  Soil. — Humus  mixed  with  the  soil  contributes  to 
fertility.  Humus  is  decayed  and  decaying  vegetable  matter. 
In  nature  considerable  humus  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in 
the  form  of  grass,  leaves,  and  weeds.  Where  there  is  vege- 
tation the  roots  of  plants  die  and  decay  and  add  to  the  supply 
of  humus. 

Certain  plants  grow  on  soils  which  contain  no  humus.  Such 
plants  supply  humus  in  the  earlier  processes  of  soil  formation. 
Their  roots,  and  acid  and  alkali  by-products  w^hich  they  give 
off,  help,  also,  to  reduce  the  rock  and  soil  particles  to  fine 
grains.  Moreover,  the  parts  of  soil  that  are  put  into  solution 
act  directly  as  plant  food.  As  the  soil  becomes  adapted  to 
vegetation  of  a  different  kind,  nature  seems  to  provide  the 
seed  for  such  growth. 

Humus  also  loosens  the  soil,  or  holds  the  particles  apart, 
so  that  the  air  can  get  in.  Air  is  needed  to  furnish  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide,  etc.  These  elements  are  usually 
held  in  solution  by  the  water.  This  is  taken  up  by  the  roots 
and  forced  into  the  plant,  taking  along  the  food  materials. 
A  heavy  clay  soil  is  often  materially  benefited  by  plowing 
under  coarse  rye  straw.  This  puts  a  lot  of  tubes  into  the  soil 
making  passages  for  the  air  to  circulate.  When  the  roots  of 
deep-rooting  plants  decay  they  leave  openings  or  pores  which 


20 


LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 


CiRAIN    FAKMINCI  21 

also  make  air  passages.     Such  openings  also  help  to  drain  the 
soil,  permitting  the  water  to  run  down  through  to  the  sub-soil. 

Humus,  again,  acts  like  a  sponge,  absorbing  and  holding  the 
water  so  that  the  plants  can  get  it. 

Water.— There  is  no  more  important  element  in  a  fertile  or 
productive  soil  than  water.  Water  is  necessary  for  plant 
growth.     Any  soil  without  water  is  worthless. 

Water,  so  necessary  for  plant  growth,  is  in  part  held  in 
solution  by  the  humus  in  the  soil.  In  the  main,  however,  it  is 
held  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of  a  thin  layer  of  water  around  each 
soil  particle.  The  finer  the  particles,  therefore,  the  more 
water  the  soil  will  hold. 

Water  is  also  held  between  soil  particles  by  what  is  known  as 
capillary  attraction.  By  capillary  attraction,  also,  the  water 
from  beneath  is  brought  to  the  surface  to  maintain  the  supply 
as  the  plants  draw  it  from  the  soil  on  the  surface.  Capillary 
attraction  is  well  illustrated  in  the  lamp  wick  which  draws 
oil  from  the  bowl  of  a  lamp  to  the  burner. 

Anchorage. — The  soil  also  serves  as  an  anchorage  for  plants. 
The  roots  of  plants,  trees  included,  descend  into  the  soil  be- 
tween and  below  the  heavy  soil  particles,  and  those  hold  the 
plants  upright.  Sometimes,  however,  when  the  wind  is  high, 
and  the  soil  is  loose,  trees  or  other  tall  and  heavy  plants  are 
blown  over. 

Good  Soil  and  Poor  Soil. — The  value  of  the  soil  depends 
entirely  upon  the  amount  of  plant  food  it  contains.  A  good 
soil  contains  much  and  a  poor  soil  little.  Plants  need  as  food, 
not  only  the  elements  brought  into  the  soil  by  water  and  air, 
but  the  elements  composing  the  rock  or  soil  particles  them- 
selves. Different  soils  are  made  up  of  different  elements  and, 
therefore,  are  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  crops.  Different 
crops  need  different  foods  just  as  do  different  animals. 

A  good  soil,  also,  is  one  that  is  made  up  of  fine  particles. 
The  finer  the  particles  of  soil,  the  more  will  the  surface  be 
exposed  to  the  solvent  action  of  water,  acids,  and  alkalies, 
and  the  more  easily  will  food  in  the  soil  particles  be  set  free. 
A  soil  made  up  of  particles  that  are  easily  decomposed,  there- 
fore, is  better  than  one  whose  particles  are  difficult  of  decompo- 
sition.    Some  poor  soils  will  grow  profitable  crops  for  one. 


22  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

two  or  tliree  years.  Then  the  available  plant  food  is  reduced 
to  such  a  degree  that  not  enough  can  be  grown  upon  the  soil 
to  pay  for  the  work  involved.  Such  soils  must  thereafter  be 
fertilized  or  fed.  This  simply  means  putting  on  something 
that  the  plants  need  for  food.  Many  good  soils,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  been  known  to  grow  crops  abiuidantly  for  from 
twenty  to  forty  years.  But  even  the  best  of  soils  will  in  time 
become  so  reduced  in  plant  food  that  they  must  be  fertilized. 
Or,  if  farming  is  to  be  continued  indefinitely  on  the  same  soil, 
a  system  of  farming  must  be  adopted  that  will  put  back  into 
the  soil  as  much  as  the  plants  take  out. 

In  a  great  number  of  cases  people  have  taken  plant  food 
out  of  the  soil  and  sold  it  in  the  form  of  grain  and  hay  until 
their  farms  became  unprofitable  and  then  have  moved  else- 
where. But  that  can  no  longer  be  done  because  the  farming 
lands  of  the  country  are  now  practically  all  occupied.  Grain 
farming  of  the  kind  mentioned,  which  has  been  called  soil 
robbing,  must  cease.     It  is  not  real  farming. 

Limiting  Element. — Some  soils  have  all  that  is  needed  for 
profitable  crop  production  with  the  exception  of  one  ingredient. 
This  missing  ingredient  is  called  the  hmiting  element.  Plants 
cannot  grow  because  they  do  not  have  it.  The  plant  is  like 
the  animal  in  this  respect.  Both  grow  with  a  definite  com- 
position or  will  not  grow  at  all.  The  way  to  make  such  soils 
productive  is  to  supply  the  lacking  material. 

Soil  Washing  or  Erosion. — Soils  that  are  not  level  will 
wash.  Washing,  or  Erosion,  takes  away  the  finer  and  best 
particles.  The  delta  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river  is, 
in  fact,  made  iip  of  some  of  the  best  soil  of  the  whole  Mississ- 
ippi Valley.  Grain  farming  destroys  the  sod  and  uses  up  the 
humus  which  helps  to  hold  the  soil  particles  together.  It, 
therefore,  puts  the  soil  into  condition  to  wash  badly. 

When  a  worn-out  soil  is  washed  away  leaving  the  good  sub- 
soil exposed  for  crop  production  work,  erosion  is  a  good  thing. 
But  this  holds  true  only  where  there  is  a  good  sub-soil.  In 
general,  soil  washing  should  be  prevented  if  possible. 

Soil  washing  can  sometimes  be  prevented  by  deep  plowing. 
This  loosens  the  soil  to  such  a  depth  that  rain,  unless  it  is 
exceptionally  heavy,  is  absorbed  and  not  allowed  to  run  off  on 


GRAIN    FARMING  23 

the  surface.  Soil  washing  may  also  be  i)reveiitc(l  to  some 
extent  by  applying  straw  either  on  the  surface  or  in  the  texture 
of  the  soil  by  plowing  it  under. 

Soil  Bacteria. — A  most  important  element  of  soil  fertility 
is  its  bacterial  hfe.  Bacteria  in  general  are  small  living 
organisms  made  up  of  only  a  single  cell.  They  are  so  small 
ordinarily  that  they  cannot  be  seen.  In  order  to  be  able  to 
see  them  one  must  have  a  very  strong  microscope  which 
makes  them  appear  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  times  as 
large  as  they  really  are.  They  live,  grow,  increase  in  numbers, 
and  also  die.  When  they  die  they  leave  a  carcass  or  dead 
body  in  the  soil  which  is  very  rich  in  the  things  needed  for 
plant  grow^th.  They  also  eat  or  dissolve  the  dead  roots, 
manure,  grass,  weeds,  etc.,  and  thus  put  them  into  forms  fit 
for  use  as  foods  by  growing  plants.  The  bacteria,  by  their 
mode  of  living  and  b}^  means  of  the  waste  products  they  give 
off,  also,  actually  help  to  dissolve  soil  particles  and  make 
available  other  substances  which  plants  need  as  food.  A  soil 
that  is  well  supplied  with  these  bacteria,  therefore,  is  a  better 
soil  than  one  that  is  poorly  supplied. 

Most  productive  soils  in  their  natural  state  are  covered 
with  leaves,  grass,  weeds,  etc.  This  material  furnishes  the 
bacteria  with  food  and  at  the  same  time  protects  them  from 
the  sun.  Sunlight  will  kill  most  bacteria,  not  by  its  heat  but 
because  of  other  qualities.  This  is  one  reason  why  new  soil 
when  it  is  first  broken  or  plowed  up  is  so  rich  and  will  produce 
such  good  crops. 

In  grain  farming,  the  crop  is  cut  in  the  middle  of  the  sum- 
mer and  the  soil  is  exposed  to  direct  sunlight  during  a  large 
part  of  the  season  when  the  light  is  the  most  intense.  This  has 
a  very  damaging  effect  on  the  soil.  Then  when  the  land  grows 
poorer  and  will  not  grow  crops  continually,  it  is  summer 
fallowed.  This  again  exposes  the  soil  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  for  a  long  period,  killing  all  the  bacteria  on  the  surface. 
Land  so  treated  is  benefited  in  some  ways  but  it  is  materially 
damaged  by  the  loss  of  its  bacterial  life.  It  has  been  found  in 
fact,  that  by  growing  a  cultivated  crop,  such  as  corn  or  po- 
tatoes, the  soil  receives  the  same  benefit  as  by  summer  fallow- 
ing and  the  succeeding  crop  is  just  as  good.     The  reason  is 


24  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

that  this   method  saves  bacteria,   and  the  crop  of    corn  or 
potatoes  is  clear  gain. 

THE    BUSINESS    OF    GRAIN    FARMING 

The  farmer  often  looks  upon  his  work  as  of  inferior  rank. 
He  is  "only  a  farmer,"  he  says,  but  the  modern  successful 
farmer  is  a  business  man,  and  one  must  not  only  till  the  soil 
and  grow  crops,  but  must  come  into  contact  with  practically 
all  of  the  other  kinds  of  business  men  and  know  something 
about  their  business. 

Revenues  from  Grain  Farming. — Since  grain  farming,  as 
such,  is  soil  robbing,  it  must  necessarily  appear  very  profitable, 
so  long  as  the  store  of  fertility  holds  out  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  produce  abundant  crops.  It  yields  "easy  money"  which 
helps  in  establishing  a  new  farm  or  a  new  farming  community. 
When  a  man  settles  in  a  new  country  he  has  need  of  all  the 
cash  that  is  available  to  establish  his  home  and  his  enterprise. 
If,  then,  he  takes  some  of  the  capital  stored  in  his  soil  and 
invests  it  in  improvements  on  the  farm  so  that  he  can  make 
better  use  of  the  rest  of  the  fertility  in  the  soil,  he  is  entirely 
justified.  If  he  goes  farther,  however,  he  soon  overdraws  his 
account.  The  man,  however,  who  lives  in  the  city,  buys  a 
piece  of  land,  robs  it  of  its  soil  fertility,  does  not  put  the  money 
back  into  the  farm,  and  then  sells  the  land  to  some  ignorant 
outsider  who  wants  to  be  a  real  farmer,  charging  a  price  in 
accordance  with  what  the  land  has  produced,  ought  to  be 
considered  guilty  of  a  criminal  offense. 

The  Labor  Problem. — The  grain  farm  employs  very  little 
labor  during  the  winter  and  a  very  great  deal  during  the 
summer.  The  amount  employed  in  the  summer  is  not  uni- 
form. Much  more  is  needed  at  harvesting  and  threshing 
times  than  at  other  times.  Labor  on  the  grain  farm,  therefore, 
is  very  expensive  for  the  time  it  is  employed,  for  it  demands 
a  wage  based  upon  the  need  of  support  through  months  when 
no  such  employment  can  be  had.  Possibly  grain  farming  is  in 
part  responsible  for  the  tramp  evil  in  the  LTnited  States. 

Looking  at  the  labor  problem  from  another  standpoint,  the 
grain  farmer,  if  he  is  farming  properly,  must  necessarily  plow, 
disc,  harrow,  seed  and  harvest  all  of  the  land  upon  all  of  his 


GRAIN    FAKMIN(i  25 

farm  every  year.  Yet  all  of  the  work  must  be  done  in  practi- 
cally half  the  year.  Considering  this  fact,  with  high  cost  of 
labor  and  the  added  cost  of  seed,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 
grain  farming  is  an  expensive  method. 

Farm  Equipment. — The  equipment  of  machinery  and  horses 
on  a  grain  farm,  moreover,  is  necessarily  large  and  expensive. 
There  must  be  sufficient  horse  or  traction  power  to  work  all 
the  land  every  year.  And  there  must  be  plows,  discs,  harrows, 
drills  or  seeders,  harvesters,  threshers,  wagons,  etc.  The 
taxes,  interest,  depreciation  in  value,  repairs,  room  for  stor- 
age, etc.,  on  all  of  those  items  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance. 

Social  Aspect  of  Grain  Farming. — The  grain  farmer,  who  is 
idle  a  large  part  of  the  year,  develops  the  habit  of  idleness,  and 
idleness  leads  to  shiftlessness  and  laxness.  When  these 
characteristics  once  become  firmly  established  they  lead 
rapidly  to  social  decline. 


CHAPTER  II 
LIVESTOCK  FARMING 

The  statement  that  ''man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone'*  is 
familiar  to  all.  The  purpose  of  livestock  on  the  farm  is 
several-fold:  (1)  to  furnish  power — hence  the  horse;  (2)  to 
provide  protein  foods  for  man — meat,  milk  and  eggs;  (3)  to 
supply  fatty  foods — butter,  lard  and  tallow;  (4)  to  yield 
material  for  clothing — wool;  and  (5)  to  conserve  soil  fertility. 

Let  it  be  understood  at  the  start,  that  livestock  farming  is 
not,  and  cannot  be,  advocated  as  the  only  form  of  agricul- 
tural endeavor.  Man  needs  bread  with  his  butter,  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables  with  his  meat,  fruit  with  his  fatty  foods, 
and  cotton  with  his  wool  fiber  for  clothing.  Yet  in  livestock 
the  farmer  has  an  avenue  of  escape  from  that  poverty  which 
surely  follows  excessive  grain  farming  without  a  proper  retiu-n 
of  soil  fertility.  Moreover,  the  raising  of  livestock  promises 
increasingly  rich  returns.  B.  F.  Harris,  banker-farmer  of 
Champaign,  111.,  says: 

"In  1890  the  average  net  consumption  of  meat  per  capita  in  the 
United  States  was  450  i)oun(ls,  which  in  1912  had  fallen  to  180  pounds. 
Meat  consumption  cannot  be  reduced  much  lower,  nor  will  the  prices  be 
less  for  population  is  fast  increasing  on  production." 

The  Place  of  Live  Stock. — What  is  the  place  of  livestock 
in  the  economy  of  the  world?  If  it  takes  from  5  to  10  pounds 
of  feed  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight  on  a  meat-pro- 
ducing animal,  and  less  than  half  of  this  gain  is  edible,  is 
not  the  animal  on  the  farm  a  cause  of  a  great  waste  and  of 
possible  world-wide  bankruptcy?  Such  questions  are  fre- 
quently asked.  But  which  is  preferable:  to  support  a  large 
world  population  by  means  of  grain  farming  directly  for  a 
period  of  from  three  to  fifty  years,  or  to  support  a  smaller 
population  of  higher-class  individuals  indefinitely  for  all  ages? 

26 


LIVESTOCK    FARMING 


27 


28  L^KSTOCR    O.N     'lilK     KAliM 

The  latter  is  tlie  possibility  in  livestock  farming  and  the 
limits  in  number  and  quaHty  of  population  in  the  world  have 
not  yet  been  reached  under  livestock  farming. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  LIVESTOCK  FARMING 

The  principal  livestock  product — meat — as  an  article  of 
human  food,  contains  certain  invigorating  or  stimulating 
principles  not  found  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Thus  meat- 
consuming  nations,  provided  they  do  not  consume  an  excess, 
are  in  advance  of  those  living  upon  a  vegetable  diet,  and 
aside  from  the  indirect  advantages  of  Uvestock  farming  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  and  to  be  discussed  more  fully  later, 
there  are  certain  other  important  and  immediately  direct 
advantages. 

Coarse  Feeds. — If  man  were  able  to  produce  non-animal 
feeds  that  would  satisfy  his  needs,  if  he  could  eat  the  kinds 
of  feeds  that  livestock  eats,  and  if  all  the  land  were  avail- 
able for  cropping,  there  would  be  no  need  of  the  meat-making 
animals  on  the  farm.  But  such  are  not  the  facts.  Most  of 
the  farm  animals  use  a  large  proportion  of  coarse  feeds  or 
roughages  in  their  ration,  hke  gras^,  hay,  corn  fodder  and 
straw.  These  are  converted  into  body  tissues  in  the  animal 
and  a  large  part  of  this  becomes  food  for  man. 

Waste  Lands. — In  many  parts  of  the  country  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  rough,  hilly  and  mountainous  land.  This  land  pro- 
duces forage  crops,  but  frequently  cannot  at  all,  or  cannot  con- 
veniently be  farmed  by  the  cropping  system.  Furnishing 
grazing  for  livestock,  however,  it  yields  food  for  man.  On 
most  farms,  also,  there  are  fence  rows  and  fence  corners,  and 
frequently  wild  land  and  timber  lots,  all  of  which  grow  more 
or  less  grass.  This  is  frequently  wasted  under  the  cropping 
system.  With  livestock,  however,  all  such  land  can  be 
grazed,  increasing  the  area  upon  which  human  food  is  pro- 
duced. On  the  average  farm,  too,  there  is  usually  a  good  deal 
of  aftermath  which  can  be  used  as  feed  for  stock  and  which 
would  be  lost  by  the  other  method. 

Weeds. — By  most  classes  of  stock,  and  by  sheep  especially, 
a  great  many  weeds  growing  on  farms  can  be  converted  into 
human  food  products. 


LIVESTOCK    FARMING 


20 


30 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


w 


LIVESTOCK    FARMING  31 

Waste  Feeds. — Kitcluui  slops,  (laiiuijAed  and  scattered  grain, 
and  similar  things  would  often  bo  wast(Ml  wvvv  it  not  for  meat- 
producing  animals.  Slops  from  the  kitchen,  when  used 
fresh  and  not  loaded  with  broken  glass,  soap  and  washing 
powders,  make  the  best  kind  of  hog  feed.  They  are  usually 
rich  in  all  the  substances  that  are  necessary  to  make  hogs 
grow  and  fatten.  Man}-  times,  again,  a  farmer  has  soft  corn, 
caused  by  an  early  frost  which  is  practically^  worthless  on  the 
grain  market,  but  which  makes  good  hog  feed.  Sometimes 
grain  spoils  in  the  bin  by  dampness  or  by  heating  or  sometimes 
great  quantities  of  grain  become  damaged  by  elevator  fires. 
All  such  grains  make  good  hog  feed,  and,  indirectly  therefore, 
human  food.  On  most  farms  also  by  shattering,  lodging, 
hailstorms,  etc.,  a  good  deal  of  grain  is  left  in  fields  after 
harvest.  Without  stock  this  would  be  wasted  while  with 
livestock  it  becomes  a  source  of  profit  and  adds  to  the  suste- 
nance and  comfort  of  the  human  race. 

The  Labor  Problem. — On  the  livestock  farm  there  is  rela- 
tively more  work  in  winter  .and  less  in  summer  than  on  the 
grain  farm.  This  makes  a  much  more  equal  distribution  of 
labor  during  the  year  and  enables  the  livestock  farmer  to 
employ  a  higher  class  of  help  at  a  lower  wage  than  the  grain 
farmer.  This  gives  economy  of  production  also,  and  con- 
sequently more  profit. 

Expense  of  Harvesting. — The  expense  of  harvesting  machin- 
ery for  the  grain  farm,  already  mentioned,  consists  of  the  origi- 
nal investment,  repairs,  depreciation,  interest,  taxes,  storage 
room,  etc.  There  is  also  the  work  of  harvesting,  caring  for, 
gathering  in,  threshing,  and  marketing  grain  to  be  counted. 
With  the  grazing  of  livestock  most  of  this  work  and  expense 
is  eliminated  though  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
fences  must  be  considered  (and  will  be  later).  Stock  or 
feeder  cattle  and  sheep  obtain  the  greater  part  of  their  sus- 
tenance by  grazing.  The  grain  they  are  fed  and  the  shelter 
necessary  for  winter  are  very  small  items  when  compared 
with  the  expenses  of  grain  farming. 

FENCES 

The  cost  of  fencing  is  considered  by  many  a  serious  handi- 
cap in  establishing  a  livestock  farm.     Many,  therefore,  fence 


'A2  LIVESTOCK    OS    THE    EAK.M 

in  small  areas  in  which  they  confine  their  stock.  This,  how- 
ever, is  a  mistake  and  defeats  the  farmers'  purpose.  The 
stock  does  not  have  sufficient  exercise,  or  the  necessary  varietj^ 
or  abundance  of  feeds.  The  result  is  the  animals  cannot  do 
well  and  may  become  a  source  of  loss. 

Manner  of  Fencing. — Farm  fences  should  be  built  to  pro- 
mote the  entire  business  of  the  farm — pastures,  crop  rotation, 
economy  in  doing  the  farm  work,  etc.  The  fence  rows  should 
be  laid  out  where  the  fences  are  intended  to  remain  for  all 
time.  Then  these  should  be  well  constructed  and  be  made  as 
nearly  permanent  as  econoni}^  of  construction  will  permit.  A 
poor  fence  should  not  be  tolerated  because  when  least  expected 
and  when  the  possibility  of  producing  damage  is  the  greatest 
the  stock  may  break  out  and  spoil  a  year's  profit  in  one  night. 
The  loss  may  be  in  damage  to  the  crops  or  in  damage  to  the 
stock  itself.  Overeating  may  kill  the  animals,  and,  it  may  be, 
the  best  ones  will  die  first. 

It  is  not  only  the  immediate  damage  to  the  crops  and  to  the 
stock  that  should  be  considered.  If  animals  get  out  a  few 
times  they  get  the  habit  of  going  through  fences  and  then  it 
is  practically  impossible  to  keep  them  back  with  any  kind  of 
a  fence.  Thus  the  habit  of  fence  creeping  or  fence  jumping 
and  the  habit  of  remaining  in  the  pasture  may  be  largely 
developed  and  one  is  as  bad  as  the  other  is  good. 

Animals'  Fence  Habits. — An  8-acre  area  of .  timber  with 
fields  on  two  sides  was  fenced  by  the  author  with  two  strands 
of  ordinary  barbed  wire.  At  the  time  the  acorns  began  to 
fall,  a  bunch  of  shotes  that  had  been  fed  and  grazed  in  an 
arable  pasture  were  put  into  this  woods  pasture.  They  re- 
mained there  till  snow  fell  in  the  late  fall  when  they  were  ready 
for  market.  Never  did  any  of  the  hogs  ever  get  out  of  the 
pasture.  It  was  difficult  to  drive  them  out  finally  with  both 
wires  laid  down  on  the  ground.  The  pigs  had  been  trained 
to  remain  within  their  enclosure  and  they  had  enough  to  eat 
where  they  were  expected  to  stay. 

Kind  of  Fence. — Fences  may  be  built  for  different  kinds  of 
stock,  but  a  fence  that  is  built  to  turn  all  kinds  of  stock  is  the 
most  satisfactory.  Such  a  fence  can  be  constructed  with 
a  strand  of  woven  wire  about  30  inches  wide  at  the  bottom 


]J\  IIS'I'OCK     ]'Al{Ml.\(i  33 

and  with  three  strands  of  barbed  wire  above  this.  The  toj) 
wires  may  be  spaced  6,  8  and  10  inches  respectively,  working- 
from  the  woven  wire  upward.  A  fence  of  this  kind  is  4} 2  feet 
high.  The  barbed  wires  may  be  spaced  a  httle  wider  to  make 
the  fence  higher.  Two  barbed  wires  above  sucli  a  strand  of 
woven  wire  will  turn  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep. 

It  is  estimated  that  such  a  fence  can  be  built  at  a  cost  of 
about  60  cents  per  rod  as  follows: 

Woven  wire— 30  inches $0.  30 

Post 0.10 

Three  barbed  wires 0. 10 

Labor 0.10 

Totnl SO.  60 

In  some  sections  and  at  certain  times  it  might  cost  a  little 
more  than  this  to  build  such  a  fence  but  if  one  has  the  post 
timber  on  his  own  farm  it  might  be  built  for  less. 

In  building  a  fence  it  is  well  to  set  the  posts  16,H  feet  or  1 
rod  apart.  It  is  then  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  the  area 
within  the  enclosure  or  in  any  part  of  it.  The  post  timber 
should  be  w^ell  seasoned. 

How  to  Build  a  Fence. — The  posts  should  be  cut  and 
sharpened  during  the  winter  while  labor  is  cheap  and  plenti- 
ful. They  should  then  be  well  piled  and  allowed  to  dry 
thoroughly  through  the  following  summer.  The  next  spring 
when  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  and  the  fence  row  has 
l.)een  staked  out,  one  man  goes  ahead  with  a  crowbar  and 
punches  a  hole  in  the  ground  where  each  post  is  to  stand. 
Following  this  man,  come  two  other  men  on  a  wagon  with 
a  fiat-bottomed  rack.  The  sharpened  posts  are  carried  on 
the  wagon  and  each  man  has  a  post  maul.  The  wagon  is 
stopped  by  the  side  of  a  hole  made  by  the  man  with  the  crow- 
bar. The  post  is  set  and  driven  down  to  the  desired  depth 
by  the  men  standing  on  the  wagon.  Posts  should  be  set  from 
2  to  3  feet  deep  with  the  larger  or  sounder  end  down.  The 
corner  posts  should  be  larger  than  the  others  and  should  be 
set  in  concrete. 

This  same  method  of  fence  construction  can  also  be  used 


84  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

during  the  summer  after  a  heavy  rain  when  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  wet.     Tlie  wire  may  be  nailed  on  at  any  time. 

Many  times  the  foregoing  method  of  fence  construction 
cannot  be  used.  It  is  then  necessary  to  dig  holes.  Many 
kinds  of  post-hole  diggers  are  available.  A  post  sharp  at  the 
bottom  will  not  heave  out  as  readily  by  winter  freezes,  and 
can  be  pounded  back  more  easily  than  one  that  is  sawed 
square. 

Post  Timber. — In  The  Country  Gentleman  of  March  6,  1915, 
Edmund  Secrest  says: 

"Almost  every  property  owner,  whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country, 
uses  at  some  time  a  certain  quantity  of  post  material.  .  .  .  Few  of 
our  native  timber  trees  make  durable  posts  and  it  is  a  waste  of  time  and 
material  to  use  white  elm,  maple,  beech,  ash,  pine,  spruce  and  the  red 
and  black  oaks  for  this  purpose,  unless  the  wood  is  treated  with  preserva- 
tives; and  this  is  impracticable  unless  a  considerable  quantity  is  used. 
Untreated  the  wood  of  these  trees  lasts  only  a  few  years  in  the  ground. 

''Examination  of  some  30,000  fence  posts  by  an  institution  with  which 
the  writer  is  connected  has  disclosed  some  interesting  facts  in  connection 

with  the  problems The  osage  orange  or  common  hedge  was 

shown  to  possess  more  durability  than  any  other  timber  examined. 
Posts  that  had  been  planted  for  thirty  or  forty  years  showed  only  a  small 
percentage  slightly  decayed.  The  osage  post  is  without  a  peer  for  dura- 
bihty  and  strength.  Small  poles  no  larger  than  2  inches  in  diameter  will 
last  for  years  in  the  ground  and  no  better  vine  or  garden  stakes  can 
be  found. 

"The  black  or  yellow  locust  ranks  second  to  the  osage  as  a  post  timber. 
This  tree  grows  much  faster  than  the  osage  and  it  is  the  most  practicable 
fence  post  because  it  is  more  easily  obtained  in  larger  sizes.  The  black 
locust  grows  quite  commonly  throughout  the  Eastern  and  Central  States. 

"The  red  cedar — third  in  point  of  durability — is  quite  limited  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  and  is  not  commonly  on  the  market.  The  wood  is 
light  and  strong,  but  expensive.  It  makes  good  arbor  poles,  because 
the  trees  are  usually  straight  and  the  posts  in  consequence  are  of  a 
quality  to  be  preferred  for  this  use. 

"The  mulberry  ranks  almost  with  the  red  cedar  in  durability  but  the 
trees  are  inclined  to  grow  crooked  and  scraggly,  frequently  giving  the 
posts  poor  form.  Moreover,  mulberry  is  not  plentiful  and  the  posts 
are  rarely  on  the  market.  The  wood,  however,  is  recommended  for  its 
durable  qualities. 

"White  cedar  or  arbor-vitae  posts  are  much  used  and  are  fairly  durable. 
They  are  supplied  from  the  swamps  of  the  Lake  States  and  are  shipped 
to  many  parts  of  the  country.  Like  the  red  cedar  they  are  well  adapted 
for  arbor  purposes,  but  they  decay  sooner  than  the  red  cedar.  White 
cedar  posts  have  a  common  defect — heart  rot.     This  rot  does  not  mate- 


LIVESTOCK   FAliMING  35 

rially  affect  the  lasting  qualities  of  the  posts,  however,  since  the  most 
durable  portion  is  the  sap  wood,  which  must  be  depended  upon  to  per- 
form the  service. 

"The  catalpa  has  been  much  planted  in  recent  years,  l)ut  the  durability 
of  its  wood  in  contact  with  the  ground  has  been  overestimated.  Some 
of  the  earlier  plantations  are  now  producing  posts  but  they  are  rarely  on 
the  market,  except  in  certain  sections. 

**The  chestnut  is  much  used  throughout  the  regions  where  it  grows 
and  posts  are  easily  obtained,  but  it  ranks  seventh  in  point  of  durability. 

"White,  chinquapin,  chestnut  and  bur  oaks — in  fact,  any  of  the  white 
oak  group — produce  fairly  durable  posts,  but  they  rank  below  those 
already  named.  Black  ash  and  honey  locust  are  not  recommended 
except  for  temporary  fencing.  The  wood  is  not  long-lived.  These 
species,  however,  are  quite  commonly  used  in  some  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

"It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  condition  of  the  wood  has  much  to  do 
with  its  lasting  qualities.  Trees  that  grow  rapidly  in  the  open  do  not 
make  as  durable  posts  as  those  grown  more  slowly  in  the  woods.  Open- 
grained  posts  of  red  cedar  from  fast-growing  trees  in  the  open,  for  in- 
stance, would  give  perhaps  not  more  than  a  half  or  one-third  the  service 
of  those  taken  from  slow-growing  forest  trees.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
any  of  the  other  timbers  that  have  been  described. 

"Posts  taken  from  old  trees  on  the  decline  do  not  possess  the  lasting 
qualitites  of  those  taken  from  young  and  thrifty  trees.  This  accounts  for 
the  saying  so  often  heard  that  white-oak  posts  no  longer  possess  the  last- 
ing qualitites  they  had  years  ago.  Many  of  the  large  white  oaks  in  farm 
woodlots  are  on  the  decline  owing  to  constant  abuse  and  old  age. 

"Particularly  is  this  true  where  woodlands  are  heavily  grazed  by  live- 
stock. The  wood  of  trees  that  show  evidences  of  decline  has  already 
begun  to  decay,  especially  in  the  heartwood,  even  though  such  action  is 
not  apparent,  and  the  natural  result  is  that  the  life  of  the  post  is  reduced." 

Cost  of  Fencing  a  Farm. — Suppose  a  quarter  section  of  land 
is  to  be  fenced  on  four  sides  with  two  fences  crosswise  through 
the  middle,  making  four  40-acre  fields.  One  side  of  the  quar- 
ter adjoins  a  public  highway.  The  owner  will  have  to  fence 
the  entire  side  of  the  road — 160  rods.  One  the  other  three 
sides  the  expense  will  be  shared  equally  with  the  neighbors. 
This  will  mean  240  rods  more.  The  two  cross  fences  of  160 
rods  each  will  bring  the  total  up  to  720  rods.  At  60  cents  a 
rod,  the  cost  of  a  first-class,  all-purpose  fence  will  be  $432  or 
$2.70  per  acre.  Granting  that  the  fence  will  last  27  j^ears 
which  is  possible  even  with  good,  well-seasoned  white-oak 
posts,  where  there  is  not  too  much  humidit}"  and  the  climate 
is  not  too  hot,  the  fence  will  cost  only  10  cents  an  acre  per 


36  LIVESTOCK    0\    THE    FARM 

year.  This  cost  is  very  small  indeed  compared  with  the 
annual  cost  of  plowing,  pulverizing,  seed,  seeding,  harvesting, 
threshing,  etc.,  which  are  necessary  in  grain  farming. 

THE  ECONOMY  OF  LIVESTOCK 

In  the  first  part  of  this  chapter  it  was  mentioned  incident- 
ally that  it  takes  5  pounds  or  more  of  feed  to  obtain  1  pound  of 
gain  in  the  live  weight  of  a  farm  animal.  Sometimes,  however, 
gains  may  be  made  on  less.  But  from  a  financial  standpoint, 
is  a  gain  of  1  pound  at  a  cost  of  5  pounds  of  feed  a  loss  or  a 
gain?  How  much  do  the  farm  animals  pay  for  the  feed  that 
is  fed  them  under  proper  conditions? 

People  who  have  made  a  business  of  feeding  animals  say  that 
livestock  pays  from  $1  to  SI. 50  for  every  bushel  of  corn  fed  and 
for  other  feeds  in  proportion  (not  war  prices).  From  another 
standpoint,  the  market  price  of  feeds  obtained  by  the  farmer, 
such  as  hay,  oats,  corn,  barley,  etc.,  ranges  from  J^  to  l}i  cents 
a  pound.  How  much  does  the  farmer  get  for  his  farm  animals 
when  he  sells  them?  Hogs,  cattle  and  sheep  sold  for  slaughter 
bring  from  5  to  10  cents  a  pound  live  weight.  Horses  bring 
from  10  to  30  cents  a  pound  when  sold  for  work  purposes. 
When  any  of  these  animals  sell  as  pure-bred  animals  for  breed- 
ing purposes  they  may  bring  very  much  higher  prices  than 
these.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  livestock  offers  the  farmer  a 
better  market  for  his  feeds  than  do  the  feed  markets. 

But  why  should  the  animal  require  5  or  more  pounds  of 
feed  to  make  1  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight?  Why  ask  this 
question?  Is  it  not  enough  if  the  animal  pays  a  good  price 
for  all  it  eats?  No!  The  important  thing  is  not  how  much 
one  can  get  out  of  his  business  but  what  he  can  do  to  surpass 
his  neighbor,  the  grain  farmer,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
better  the  world,  leaving  his  farm  to  his  successor  in  a  better 
state  of  fertility  than  when  he  obtained  it. 

The  interesting  part  of  all  this,  however,  is  that  these 
animals  on  the  farm  pay  a  good  price  for  all  the}^  eat  and  then 
turn  right  around  and  give  a  large  part  of  it  back  in  the  form 
of  manure.  This  enables  one  to  grow  more  grain  and  hay,  to 
feed  more  livestock,  to  buy  more  land,  to  grow  more  feed,  to 
feed  more  livestock,  etc. 


LIVESTOCK     FARMING  37 

The  business  transaction  of  these  farm  animals  might  be 
compared  to  that  of  an  elevator  manager,  who,  having  bought 
of  a  farmer  a  load  of  wheat,  paying  for  it  in  cash,  at  once 
ordered  the  farmer  to  reload  a  large  part  of  his  wheat  to  take 
home  with  him.  It  might  be  added  that  a  farmer  so  treated, 
who  would  haul  his  restored  grain  into  his  yard  and  leave  it 
there,  would  not  differ  much  from  the  man  who  leaves  his 
manure  pile  lie  in  the  yard  from  year  to  year. 

An  elevator  man  who  would  do  the  thing  outlined  above 
would  be  considered  a  pretty  good  fellow.  Nevertheless,  farm 
animals  are  doing  just  the  kind  of  thing  described  right  along. 
They  not  only  return  much  of  what  the}^  eat  but  the  part  they 
return  is  greatly  improved.  What  would  one  think  if  he  sold 
100  bushels  of  oats  and  after  getting  the  money  for  it,  would 
get  40  bushels  of  wheat  in  addition?  Livestock  not  only 
gives  back  four-fifths  of  what  it  eats,  excepting  energy,  but 
it  makes  more  useful  the  part  it  gives  back,  by  the  introduction 
of  bacteria. 

The  value  of  these  germs  to  soil  fertility  has  already  been 
mentioned.  The  alimentary  track  of  the  farm  animal  is  a 
bacteria  factory.  Germs  develop  here  by  the  hundreds  of 
millions  and  when  the}^  get  into  the  soil  along  with  the  manure, 
which  furnishes  mineral  plant  food  direct,  they  work  night 
and  day  liberating  and  gathering  plant  food  so  that  plants 
grow  much  better  and  sell  for  more  money.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  livestock  farmer  grows  richer  and  the  grain  farmer  after 
the  first  few  years  grows  poorer. 

LIVESTOCK  NECESSITATES  THE  GROWING  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 

Livestock  on  the  farm  necessitates  the  growing  of  forage 
crops.  These  are  the  cheapest  feeds  and  most  farm  animals, 
to  do  well,  must  have  them.  Such  feeds  also  become  cover 
crops  for  the  soil.  They  protect  the  soil  bacteria  from  the 
heat  and  light  of  the  sun  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  as 
well  as  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  season,  thus  enabling 
the  bacteria  to  live  and  multiply.  Grain  farming  or  summer 
fallowing  does  not  provide  such  protection. 

Crop  Rotation. — Livestock  farming  also  necessitates  crop 
rotation.     In   order   to    produce   livestock   successfully   one 


38  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

should  have  corn  fodder  and  several  kinds  of  hay,  as  well  as 
a  variety  of  grains.  This  calls  for  the  sowing  or  planting  of 
different  crops  on  a  given  piece  of  land  every  year  for  a 
period  of  years. 

Different  plants  are  made  up  of  different  combinations  of 
chemical  elements.  A  crop  will  take  out  of  the  soil  so  much 
of  a  certain  substance  in  a  season  that  the  same  crop  ordinarily 
will  not  do  so  well  the  following  year.  The  partially  exhausted 
substance  thus  becomes  the  limiting  element,  and  if  the  same 
crop  is  continued  the  yield  grows  smaller  from  year  to  year. 
Under  a  good  system  of  rotation,  however,  the  crops  of  one 
season  draw  more  heavily  upon  substances  that  the  previous 
crop  has  used  the  least  of.  One  crop,  also,  may  leave  a  waste 
product  in  the  soil  which  acts  as  a  poison  to  a  like  crop  but 
not  to  a  different  kind  of  crop.  Moreover,  by  a  wise  c  oice 
of  crops  for  a  rotation,  some  of  the  elements  taken  out  of  the 
soil  by  one  crop  may  be  in  part  restored  by  another.  This 
supplemented  by  manure  keeps  the  soil  fertile. 

Cultivation. — One  of  the  principal  operations  in  agriculture 
is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  As  mentioned  in  Chapter  I, 
soil  is  improved  by  the  movement  of  soil  particles.  This 
refines  the  soil  and  liberates  more  of  the  material  out  of  which 
the  particles  are  made  for  plant  food. 

By  keeping  the  surface  loose,  cultivation  also  checks  the 
evaporation  of  water.  Of  course,  the  surface  soil  becomes 
very  dry,  but  the  loose  portion  which  extends  below  the 
extremely  dry  part  does  not  allow  the  water  to  rise  from  be- 
neath and  escape  into  the  air  by  evaporation.  The  capillary 
action  is  broken.  This  simply  means  that  the  soil  particles 
are  so  far  apart  that  the  water  cannot  rise  between  them  as 
it  rises  in  the  fibers  of  a  lamp  wick. 

In  order  that  plants  may  grow  upon  any  soil  there  must  be* 
present  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  When  a  soil  is  loose 
it  will  hold  more  water  than  when  it  is  hard.  A  loose  soil  also 
allows  water  which  falls  on  the  surface  to  soak  in.  This  pre- 
vents the  washing  away  of  the  best  particles  of  the  soil. 
Though  a  loose  soil  breaks  capillary  action,  rain  on  a  loose  soil 
packs  it  enough  to  restore  capillarity.  Of  course,  a  very 
coarse,  sandy  soil  does  not  possess  much  capillarity,  neither 


LIVESTOCK    FARMING  39 

does  it  hold  much  water.  AVater  runs  through  it  as  through 
a  willow  basket. 

Aeration  is  another  important  advantage  in  cultivation. 
The  air  fills  the  spaces  between  the  loosened  soil  particles  and 
this  brings  oxygen  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Oxygen  is  an 
important  plant  food  just  as  it  is  important  to  animal  life. 

Cultivation  also  kills  weeds.  The  importance  of  this  is  well 
recognized. 

In  almost  any  system  of  livestock  farming  in  nearly  every 
part  of  the  world  where  livestock  is  grown,  corn  is  used  as 
one  of  the  principal  feeds.  If  corn  is  to  be  grown  successfully 
it  must  be  cultivated.  It  must  also  be  cultivated  during  the 
summer.  This  is  beneficial  to  the  soil  in  all  the  ways  men- 
tioned, and  especially  in  the  killing  of  weeds  and  in  the 
preservation  of  bacteria. 

Summer  fallowing  is  beneficial  because  the  soil  is  culti- 
vated, but  when  the  soil  is  cultivated  in  the  corn  field  it  is 
doubly  beneficial  because  the  shade  from  the  corn  plant  pro- 
tects the  bacteria  in  the  soil.  Therefore,  a  crop  of  wheat  may 
yield  as  much  after  a  corn  corp  as  after  summer  fallowing. 
The  corn  crop  is  thus  clear  profit. 

Humus. — The  value  of  humus  in  the  soil  was  discussed  in 
Chapter  I  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  It  furnishes  plant 
food,  produces  a  sponge  for  holding  water  and  allows  more 
bacteria  to  develop.  Livestock  farming  puts  more  humus  into 
the  soil  than  does  grain  farming. 

The  grass  and  legume  crops  leave  more  roots  in  the  soil  than 
most  grain  crops  and  these  as  well  as  corn  shade  the  soil  dur- 
ing the  summer  to  prevent  the  burning  out  of  the  humus  in  the 
soil  by  the  sun. 

Leguminous  Plants. — With  a  system  of  livestock  farming, 
also,  it  is  possible  to  introduce  more  leguminous  plants,  such 
as  clover,  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  and  peas.  These,  to  put  it 
popularly,  take  nitrogen,  one  of  the  principal  plant  foods, 
from  the  air  and  leave  some  of  it  in  the  soil  for  the  next  gen- 
eration of  plants.  The  nitrifying  bacteria,  as  they  are  called, 
live  upon  the  roots  of  the  leguminous  plants  and  for  their 
own  life  take  nitrogen  from  the  air.  Then  when  they  die, 
the   nitrogen   is   available   for  other  plants.     These  bacteria 


40  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

keep  growing  and  dying  all  the  time.  And  when  the  legumi- 
nous plant  dies  or  is  plowed  under  so  as  to  kill  the  roots,  all 
this  nitrogen  becomes  available  for  succeeding  plants.  Thus, 
as  already  intimated,  the  livestock  farmer  has  a  way  of  making 
his  soil  richer. 

Sometimes  it  is  argued  that  the  grain  farmer  can  do  the 
same  kind  of  thing  by  sowing  clover  in  his  rotation  and  cutting 
it  for  seed.  This  is  all  right,  if  he  will  put  back  the  clover 
straw.  "But  if  he  had  some  livestock  to  which  to  feed,  this 
straw  he  would  get  good  pay  for  it  and  still  have  most  of  it 
left  to  put  back  upon  the  soil. 

Erosion  or  Soil  Washing. — In  many  sections  of  any  agri- 
cultural country  the  land  is  so  hilly  that  with  grain  farming 
a  good  deal  of  the  surface  soil  washes  away.  Gullies  and 
ditches  are  formed  materially  injuring  a  field  for  agricultural 
purposes.  In  livestock  farming  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
farm  must  be  kept  in  pasture  and  hay  meadows.  In  these 
there  is  enough  sod  produced  in  a  large  measure  to  prevent 
such  soil  washing. 

RETURNS  MORE  CERTAIN 

Weather  conditions  are  a  more  important  factor  in  grain 
farming  than  in  livestock  farming.  The  crop  is  never  sure 
until  it  is  harvested  and  threshed.  With  a  variety  of  crops, 
danger  to  one  does  not  mean  danger  to  all.  With  livestock 
farming  there  is  also  considerable  risk.  The  lives  of  the 
animals  may  be  threatened,  but  with  proper  care  the  danger 
is  slight. 

Wind. — Windstorms  are  very  often  a  serious  menace  to 
grain  farmers.  When  grain  is  approaching  maturity  and  a 
windstorm  comes  up,  especially  if  it  is  accompanied  by  a  rain, 
the  grain  may  be  lodged  badly.  This  happens  more  often 
with  good  grain  on  account  of  its  rank  growth.  When  grain 
is  thus  lodged,  much  is  lost  because  it  cannot  ])c  harvested  by 
machinery.  If  storms  come  early  in  the  growth  of  a  crop, 
its  development  is  seriously  checked. 

Storms  will  also  lodge  the  livestock  farmer's  grain,  but  that 
which  the  harvesters  fail  to  get  the  stock  can  readily  gather 
up.     A  considora])lo  part  of  the  crop  of  the  stock  farmer,  also, 


LIVESTOCK    FARMING  41 

is  in  the  form  of  grass  which  is  not  as  easily  damaged  by  storms. 
Corn,  again,  is  not  so  seriously  damaged  by  storms  as  are  the 
small  grains. 

A  dry  wind,  because  of  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture  and 
the  blowing  of  the  soil,  does  more  damage  to  the  grain  farmer 
than  to  the  livestock  farmer. 

Hail. — Many  a  grain  farmer  has  had  his  work  for  the  year 
brought  to  naught  by  a  hailstorm.  This  is  especially  true 
with  the  small  grains.  Corn  is  not  so  easily  damaged  by  hail, 
and  pasture  and  other  forage  crops  grown  by  the  livestock 
farmer  are  seldom  if  ever  ruined.  The  damage  done  him  by 
hail  is  realh^  very  slight. 

Heat  and  Moisture. — It  takes  heat,  light,  and  moisture  to 
make  all  plants  grow.  But  too  much  heat,  especially  if 
accompanied  by  an  excessive  amount  of  water,  frequently 
causes  large  damage  to  grain  crops  by  way  of  rust  and  blight. 
This,  again,  is  not  the  case  with  pasture  and  forage  crops. 

Wet  weather  very  often  interferes  with  the  seeding  and 
harvesting  of  the  grain  crops  but,  as  a  rule,  is  favorable  to 
hsiy  and  pasture  crops. 

The  absence  of  water,  also,  as  in  a  drouth,  is  very  harmful 
to  the  small  grain  but  not  to  the  same  degree  to  some  forage 
crops,  like  alfalfa  and  clover,  or  even  to  corn. 

Insects. — The  various  kinds  of  insects  such  as  plant  lice, 
chinch  bugs,  grasshoppers,  army  worms,  etc.,  are  more  in- 
jurious as  a  whole  to  the  crops  grown  by  the  grain  farmers  than 
to  those  grown  by  the  livestock  farmer. 

NATURE  OF  FARM  PROBLEM 

The  livestock  farmer  in  one  sense  is  a  manufacturer.  He 
takes  the  grains  produced  by  the  grain  farmer,  or  by  himself, 
and  converts  them  into  a  higher-priced  material.  He  makes 
a  finished  product  out  of  the  raw  material.  This  enables  him 
to  get  larger  returns  from  his  farm.  Under  some  conditions 
this  requires  more  labor  but  the  more  labor  one  can  employ 
profitably  the  better  off  he  is.  Some  people  calculate  their 
profits  by  the  number  of  men  they  can  employ. 

A  few  examples  to  illustrate  the  difference  between  grain 
an(l  livestock  farming  ma}"  be  of  value.     In  these  estimates 


42  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

the  feeds  used  are  considered  to  be  worth  1  cent  per  pound, 
which  seems  to  be  a  fair  average  considering  that  this  includes 
both  roughages  and  concentrates  and  that  the  farmer  thus  has 
a  market  for  these  products  right  at  home. 

A  1500-pound  horse  at  the  rate  of  6  pounds  of  feed  for  1 
pound  of  Hve  weight  can  be  produced  on  9000  pounds  of  feed, 
which  will  cost  $90.  Nebraska  Bulletin,  No.  130,  shows  that 
a  three-year-old  horse,  weighing  1218  pounds,  can  be  pro- 
duced at  a  cost  of  $54.42.  Assuming  that  the  interest  on  the 
investment  of  stock,  fencing,  and  buildings,  and  the  deprecia- 
tion in  value  of  these,  plus  the  labor  expended  in  caring  for  the 
animal  is  40  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  feed,  a  horse  at  maturity 
costs  $126.  Such  a  horse  can  easily  be  sold,  if  the  proper  kind 
has  been  produced,  at  $200.  This  means  a  profit  of  $74  on 
the  transaction,  besides  saving  of  labor  in  hauling  the  feed 
stuffs  to  market  and  in  harvesting  a  considerable  portion  of 
it.  The  colts  in  pasture  do  the  harvesting  under  the  con- 
dition above  mentioned  without  any  expense  to  the  farmer. 

A  1000-pound  mule  produced  under  the  conditions  men- 
tioned above  would  cost  about  $90  and  can  easily  be  sold  at 
present  prices  for  $200,  yielding  a  profit  of  over  $110  on  the 
feeds  required  to  produce  the  one  individual. 

A  good  cow  can  be  maintained  for  a  year  in  a  high  state  of 
production  on  about  $40  worth  of  feed.  Her  product  in  calf 
and  butterfat  or  milk  may  range  in  value  from  $75  to  $100  a 
year.  Taking  the  average  figures  and  the  labor,  interest,  etc., 
at  60  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  feed,  such  a  cow  returns  a 
profit  of  $23  a  year  more  than  the  grain  farmer  obtains. 

A  ewe  can  be  maintained  annually,  where  a  moderate-sized 
flock  is  kept  on  the  average  farm  and  the  sheep  are  allowed  to 
gather  what  would  otherwise  go  to  waste,  at  a  comparatively 
small  cost.  Sheep  do  not  need  expensive  shelter  in  winter, 
they  eat  largely  of  rough  feeds,  and  can  be  carried  through 
without  very  much  labor.  A  ewe  will  produce  a  lamb,  and 
sometimes  two,  and  an  annual  fleece  which  will  sell  for  con- 
siderably more  than  is  required  for  its  production. 

An  800-pound  beef  animal  at  8  cents  a  pound  is  worth  $64. 
To  grow  such  an  animal  at  6  pounds  of  feed  for  each  pound  of 
live  weight,  allowing  25  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  the  feed  for 


Livestock  farming  43 

incidental  expenses,  costs  $50,  leaving  a  margin  profit  of 
$14. 

A  300-poinul  pig  can  be  grown  at  from  4  to  5  pounds  of  feed 
for  each  pound  of  gain.  A  pig,  therefore,  costs  in  round 
numbers  about  $16  after  allowing  25  per  cent,  for  incidental 
expenses.  Such  a  pig  at  7  cents  a  pound  is  worth  $21  and 
returns  a  profit  of  $4  directl}^  over  and  above  the  feed 
consumed. 

The  grain  farmer,  with  every  crop  he  sells,  disposes  of  con- 
siderable plant  food.  If  he  continues  this  for  a  sufficient 
time,  he  reduces  the  productive  capacity  of  his  soil  to  such  an 
extent  that  farming  ceases  to  be  profitable. 

The  plant  food  in  the  soil  upon  which  the  plants  grow  is 
similar  to  a  bank  account.  When  it  is  once  drawn  out,  it  is 
gone  and  plants  will  not  grow  till  the  stock  of  plant  food  is 
returned  to  the  soil.  To  get  an  object  lesson  of  this,  one  needs 
only  to  take  a  trip  to  some  of  the  older  States.  Here  he  will 
find  farms  on  which  it  is  just  as  impossible  to  grow  crops  with- 
out fertilizers  as  it  is  without  seed.  Thus,  while  grain  farm- 
ing may  be  profitable  so  long  as  there  is  an  abundance  of  plant 
food  in  the  soil,  leaving  out  of  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
soil  is  being  robbed,  the  farmer  really  impoverishes  himself 
to  the  extent  that  he  is  unable  to  return  the  necessary  plant 
food  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  fertilizers.  He  is  then  obliged 
to  abandon  his  farm  or  leave  a  heritage  to  his  children  that  is 
a  burden  on  their  shoulders. 

Again,  if  a  grain  farmer  burns  his  straw  or  cornstalks,  he 
destroys  one  of  his  most  valuable  assets — such  stuff  as  de- 
cay converts  into  humus  to  become  plant  food  and  to  loosen 
and  aerate  the  soil,  get  oxygen  into  it,  and  furnish  conditions 
favorable  for  the  work  of  bacteria  in  liberating  and  preparing 
plant  food. 

Carl  Vrooman,  Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  in i^armers' 
Bulletin  No.  704,  says: 

"The  farmer  who  sells  his  crops  at  the  elevator  is  robbing  his  own  soil, 
his  own  purse,  and  his  own  children — selling  their  birthright  for  a  mess 
of  pottage.  The  farmer  who  not  only  does  this  but  also  burns  all  his 
cornstalks  and  straw,  reminds  one  of  the  burglar  who  takes  all  the 
valuables  he  can  carry  off  and  sets  fire  to  what  is  left." 


44  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

To  illustrate  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  plant  food  sold 
from  the  farm  in  feeds  and  in  its  equivalent  of  animal  product, 
take  the  following.  A  300-pound  pig  with  ordinary  feeding 
can  be  produced  on  about  1200  pounds  of  food  of  the  equivalent 
of  barley  and  about  1200  pounds  of  skim  milk.  These  contain 
29.76  pounds  of  nitrogen,  11.88  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  8.04  pounds  of  potash.  The  commercial  value  of  these  is : 
nitrogen,  15  cents  a  pound;  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  finely 
ground  raw  rock,  2  cents  a  pound,  and  in  the  form  of  acid 
phosphate,  6  cents  a  pound;  and  potassium,  6  cents  per  pound. 
If  it  is  fair  to  take  the  average  of  the  two  figures  for  phosphoric 
acid,  the  fertilizer  value  of  the  three  substances  contained  in 
the  feeds  needed  to  produce  a  300-pound  hog,  is  worth  S5.42. 
The  300-pound  pig  contains  5.3  pounds  of  nitrogen;  1.96 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid;  and  0.414  pound  of  potash  with  a 
fertilizer  value  of  $0.90.  The  rest  of  the  elements  in  the  feeds 
consumed  by  the  pig  are  returned  to  the  soil  in  manure,  making 
a  saving  to  the  farm  of  $4.52.  If  a  farmer  produces  150  hogs 
a  year  for  twenty  years  the  saving  in  this  item  alone  is  $9040. 

B.  F.  Harris,  chairman  of  the  Agricultural  Commission  of 
the  American  Bankers'  Association,  in  an  address  before  the 
Illinois  Livestock  Breeders'  Association  at  Springfield,  as 
printed  in  the  Chicago  Daily  Farmers^  and  Drovers^  Journal 
of  February,  1915,  said: 

"  The  average  return  of  the  grain  and  hay  farms  of  the  United  States  is 
$7.72  per  acre,  while  the  hvestock  farms  average  $11.42  or  48  per  cent, 
more  than  grain  farms,  though  many  livestock  farms  have  poorer  or  less 
improved  land. 

"Illinois  grain  farms  average  $10.60  per  acre  and  her  livestock  farms 
$12.55,  or  IS  per  cent,  advance.  In  Missouri  the  average  is  $7.69,  and 
$9.55,  or  24  per  cent,  advance.  Iowa,  $8.88  and  $13.17  or  48  per  cent,; 
Kansas,  $4.79  and  $5.26.  An  exhaustive  survey  made  by  the  government 
of  some  700  Indiana,  Illinois  and  Iowa  farms  found  that  of  the  273  of  these 
operated  by  their  owners,  194  were  livestock  farmers  and  70  crop  farmers. 

"The  livestock  farmers  averaged  189.5  acres,  37.3  acres  being  in  per- 
manent pasture;  average  investment,  $33,222;  average  labor  income, 
$755.  The  crop  farmers  averaged  101.1  acres,  of  which  14.5  acres  were 
permanent  pasture;  capital  invested,  $27,532;  average  labor  income, 
$28.  The  livestock  men  had  a  larger  acreage  and  more  capital  and  were 
reoeiving  a  much  higher  labor  income.  The  average  income  of  the  crop 
farmers  was  $28,  per  farm;  that  of  the  livestock  men,  $755,  or  27)-^  times 


LI\KST()('K     FAHMI\(J  4~) 

more  thau  grain  farmers.  This  wide  ditiereiu-e  in  favor  of  livestock 
farmers  holds  true  in  each  of  the  States. 

"Each  farm  must  be  more  of  a  factory — selling  less  crops  and  more 
meat,  milk,  butter  and  eggs.  *  There  are  $101.22  of  soil-fertihzing  ele- 
ments in  the  feed  we  ship  off  the  farm  which,  if  fed,  would  produce  a 
ton  of  beef,  and  then  only  S12.99  in  fertility  would  leave  the  farm  with 
the  beef.  There  are  about  $7.22  of  fertilizing  constituents  in  a  ton  of 
bacon,  but  when  we  sell  the  feed  instead  of  the  hogs,  we  lose  $97.31 
in  fertility — in  farm  assets.  A  ton  of  butter  carries  away  but  6  cents 
from  the  farm  fertility,  while  selling  the  feed  required  to  produce  the  ton 
carries  away  $374.67. 

"The  utilization  of  these  facts  has  helped  make  prosperous  and 
doubly  fertile  farms  and  fields  of  Denmark,  Germany  and  other  wise 
nations.  They  do  not  sell  their  farms  by  tons  and  pounds,  but  sell  the 
crops  and  finished  products  that  carry  away  the  least  fertilit3\ 

"In  1913  the  South  exported  to  Germany,  Denmark,  Belgium  the 
Netherlands,  and  Great  Britain,  1,138,000,000  pounds  of  cottonseed 
meal  and  cake — each  pound  taking  away  just  so  much  of  our  permanent 
fertility  and  adding  it  to  Europe's,  and  the  same  is  true  of  our  Northern 
flaxseed  oil  meal  cakes.  If  these  European  folk  can  pay  freight  and 
charges  thousands  of  miles  away  and  make  a  profit,  why  can't  and 
don't  we? 

"A  man  who  does  not  raise  or  feed  some  livestock,  who  does  not  have  a 
large  proportion  of  colt-raising  mares  among  the  horses,  who  does  not 
have  a  manure  spreader  working  on  schedule  or  a  few  sheep  to  clean  up, 
is  not  a  real  farmer  and  is  not  getting  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  returns 
he  would  otherwise  get." 

Interest  in  Farm  Life. — Man  was  created  in  the  image  of 
God.  Next  to  him  are  the  animals  of  the  world.  These  in- 
clude the  farm  animals.  There  is  nothing  on  the  farm  that  will 
create  such  universal  and  such  deep  interest  in  the  child,  in 
the  family,  and  even  in  the  farmer  himself  as  the  farm  live- 
stock. Many  a  man  has  been  inspired  to  nobler  deeds  and  to 
higher  ideals  by  coming  into  contact  in  an  interested  way  with 
animals. 

Wh}^  is  it  that  in  modern  times  many  a  well-to-do  person 
has  put  aside  his  automobile  and  has  gone  back  to  the  horse 
for  pleasure  purposes?  It  is  simply  on  account  of  the  rela- 
tionship that  exists.  There  is  no  relationship  or  connection 
between  a  man  and  a  dead  machine  that  touches  the  real  man 
or  the  spirit.  But  once  a  man  is  connected  up  with  a  horse 
])y  means  of  the  reins,  touch,  sight,  thought  and  voice,  he  gets 
a  response.     It  is  in  this  that  man  finds  something  worth 


46  '  LRESTOCK    ON    THP^    FARM 

living  for.  Tlie  .same  relationship  exists  between  man  and 
all  the  live  animals.  All  this  creates  interest  and  enthusiasm, 
and  without  these  success  cannot  be  achieved.  Contentment 
and  happiness  are  also  necessary  to  success  in  any  work.  If 
a  man  is  not  happy  and  contented  in  any  work,  he  will  give 
up  such  work  and  take  something  else  even  at  half  the  salary. 
Work  in  which  one  can  be  interested  and  enthusiastic  and  in 
which  contentment  and  happiness  prevail,  leads  to  a  higher 
development.  Man  under  such  conditions  will  grow  and 
develop  all  the  possibilities  with  which  his  Creator  endowed 
him.  Thus  livestock  farming  will  result  in  social  and  politi- 
cal reform.  It  will  help  to  develop  a  higher  type  of  manhood 
and  aid  in  the  betterment  of  the  world  generally. 

The  Man. — The  type  of  man  needed  for  livestock  farming 
is  worthy  of  consideration.  The  livestock  farmer  must 
necessarily  be  a  grain  farmer.  As  a  rule,  most  of  the  feeds  fed 
to  livestock  are  grown  upon  the  farm.  In  addition  to  this 
he  must  know  animal  husbandry.  He  must  be  familiar 
with  the  history  of  breeds  so  as  to  know  what  will  result  from 
breeding  work.  He  must  know  the  types  within  the  different 
breeds.  He  should  also  know  the  type  that  is  likely  to  be  in 
demand  in  the  future.  It  takes  time  to  develop  a  herd  of 
animals  and  if  when  developed  it  is  not  in  demand  it  has  little 
value. 

The  farmer  must  also  know  the  different  feeds;  what  they 
are  composed  of  and  what  results  they  will  give  when  fed  to 
animals  under  different  conditions. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  many  good  herdsmen  in  this 
country  are  of  foreign  birth,  often  Scotch  or  English.  Such 
men  are  brought  over  especially  for  this  work  because  they 
have  been  both  bred  and  trained  for  the  work  of  caring  for 
and  feeding  animals.  Great  Britain  has  for  centuries  been 
known  as  a  livestock  country.  It  takes  more  time  to  develop 
a  livestock  man  than  to  develop  a  herd  of  livestock. 

A  most  excellent  contribution  to  this  topic  appeared  in  the 
Breeders'  Gazette  of  June  17,  1915,  entitled  ''The  INIaster 
Breeder."  It  ^vas  by  Dean  Davenport,  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  and  is  given  herewith. 
Dean  Davenport  said: 


LIVESTOCK    FARMINCi  4/ 

"What  manner  of  man  should  the  breeder  be?  What  instincts,  \vhat 
(juahties  of  mind,  what  temperament  sliould  he  i)ossess  in  order  to 
SLiceecd  in  the  breeder's  art?  What  arc  the  ideals  and  what  the  capacities 
of  the  born  breeder  of  livestock  whereby  he  achieves  constructive  results? 
Such  is  the  question  and  what  shall  the  answer  be? 

"Anybody  can  buy  and  sell  livestock.  Anybody  can  speculate  in 
values.  Anybody  can  traffic  in  pedigrees  and  show-ring  records. 
Anybody  can  raise  livestock  so  far  as  increasing  numbers  are  concerned, 
but  only  the  master  breeder  can  so  compound  the  subtle  qualities  of 
animal  life  and  so  foster  and  finish  the  product  as  really  to  contribute 
something  new  to  the  animal  art  of  his  time.  It  is  perhaps  worth  the 
attempt  to  analyze  and  to  define,  as  best  we  may,  the  qualities  that 
characterize  the  master  breeder  as  distinct  from  the  one  who  merely 
traffics  in  what  others  have  accomplished. 

"First  of  all  and  fundamental  to  constructive  results,  in  the  herd  and 
to  the  highest  satisfaction  of  the  mind,  the  breeder  must  belong  to  the 
rather  rare  class  that  may  be  called  lovers  of  animal  life.  The  landscape 
artist  is  passionately  fond  of  the  out-of-doors;  the  musician  is  as  sensitive 
to  sound  as  the  artist  is  to  sight;  the  breeder's  response  is  to  life  in  animal 
form. 

"I  do  not  now  refer  to  that  intellectual  appreciation  of  the  economic 
value  of  good  livestock,  admitted  without  argument  even  by  the  census 
taker  and  the  statistician  and  accorded  by  thinking  men  everywhere. 
I  do  not  have  in  mind  that  voluble  enthusiasm  for  conventional  type  or 
pedigree  that  characterizes  many  a  professional  dealer,  but  I  mean  that 
instinctive  love  for  living  things  that  amounts  almost  to  a  passion  with  the 
few  who  possess  it;  which  the  man  feels  and  the  animal  understands, 
but  that  we  may  not  define. 

"This  love  of  life  expresses  itself  in  a  thousand  subtle  ways — in  tone  of 
voice,  in  accent,  in  manner,  and  in  everj^  movement.  This  is  what  keeps 
the  stockman  with  his  creatures  on  stormy  days,  even  after  nothing  for 
their  comfort  remains  to  be  done.  He  'just  likes  to  be  with  them,' 
and  they  with  him.  No  man  quite  knows  why,  but  so  it  is  and  that  is 
enough.  Only  the  man  who  feels  this  thing  can  ever  realize  the  highest 
satisfaction  and  the  most  substantial  success  as  a  breeder.  Be  he  ever 
so  successful  in  reproducing  numbers  and  in  buying  and  selling  he  will 
never  be  a  constructive  breeder  unless  he  has  that  in  his  make-up  which 
responds  to  animal  association. 

"This  man  must  also  be  an  artist,  with  the  artist's  eye  to  detect 
details  of  form  and  structure  and  with  the  artist's  ability  to  create 
mental  pictures  out  of  the  best  that  he  has  seen  in  all  animals.  Thus  is 
his  ideal  type  built  up.  If  he  cannot  do  this  he  is  working  in  the  dark,  a 
ship  without  a  compass,  an  architect  without  a  vision,  a  builder  without 
blueprints  or  specifications.  With  this  vision  he  has  an  ever-present 
guide  to  progress,  a  yardstick  with  which  to  measure  both  success  and 
failure,  an  absolute  standard  for  achievement.  And  yet  he  must  look 
beyond  his  type  into  the  characters  that  compose  it.  As  the  artist  must 
note  details  of  rock  and  tree,  of  stream  and  sky,  so  the  breeder  must  fix 


■IS  LIVESTOCK    ().\     TlIK     FARM 

Ilis  attention  upon  the  details  that  make  up  his  ideal  and  learn  to  handle 
them  separately,  because  the  type  as  such  is  too  complicated  for  selection 
and  is  never  accurately  reproduced.  The  type  is,  therefore,  a  dream,  the 
separate  characters  are  the  realities. 

"This  man  must  also  be  an  accurate  critic,  unerring  in  his  judgment  of 
his  own  animals  as  if  they  belonged  to  the  veriest  stranger.  This  quality, 
while  not  incompatible  with  the  two  already  mentioned,  is  so  different 
from  either  as  seldom  to  be  found  united  in  the  same  individual.  Difficult 
as  it  is,  the  breeder  must  cultivate  tliis  quality,  and  while  1  doubt  whether 
the  greatest  breeders  are  the  best  judges  of  animals,  yet  every  constructive 
l^reeder  nuist  be  an  impartial  and  fairly  competent  judge,  at  least  free 
from  prejudice,  lest  he  deceive  himself  with  an  inordinate  love  of  his  own 
achievements  and  rest  contented  with  what  others  have  surpassed. 

"He  must  needs  have  a  good  memory  for  details,  this  breeder,  because, 
in  spite  of  records,  much  must  be  carried  in  the  mind,  and  animals  long 
since  dead  must  be  compared  point  by  point  with  living  specimens  and 
with  each  other  in  order  to  determine  matings  and  decide  whether  and 
where  progress  is  being  made. 

"  A 'statistician  he  must  surely  be.  That  is  io  say  he  nmst  step  aside 
from  the  study  of  individuals  and  study  the  history  of  detail  character- 
istics, and  he  must  study  animals  in  the  mass.  In  no  other  way  can  he 
])e  satisfied  as  to  whether  he  is  making  real  progress  forward  or  only 
multiplying  animals  that  revolve  around  a  center,  presenting  not  a 
progressive  but  onl,y  a  shifting  standard.  Among  cows  and  speed  horses 
the  records  are  absolute  and  questions  of  this  character  answer  them- 
selves, but  in  general  breeding  so  many  details  nuist  be  carried  in  the  eye 
that  the  breeder  must  submit  his  mental  pictures  and  his  intellectual 
judgment  to  the  same  statistical  methods  and  reasoning  tliat  lie  would 
apply  to  columns  and  tables  of  figures,  dealing  with  other  general  ques- 
tions. 

"For  above  all,  this  breeder  is  to  be  constructive.  No  breeder  can  be 
accounted  great  who  simply  preserves  what  has  been  gained  Ijefore, 
difficult  as  this  may  be  of  actual  accomplishment.  The  real  breeder  is 
not  an  imitator.  He  is  an  inventor  as  truly  as  is  a  mechanician;  a 
designer  as  truly  as  is  a  great  musician,  sculptor,  or  painter,  and  his 
theme  is  something  new  and  better  than  was  ever  done  before.  Not  all 
his  attempts  will  be  successful  any  more  than  they  are  in  music  or  paint- 
ing, but  perfection  is  the  ideal,  and  occasional  failure  together  with  much 
hard  work  is  the  penalty  we  all  pay  for  really  constructive  results. 
Breeding  of  this  kind  is  seldom  popular  and  never  spectacular,  and  that 
is  one  of  the  reasons  whj^  it  sometimes  succeeds,  for  premature  popularity 
has  cut  off  some  of  tlie  most  promising  attempts  of  constructive  breeding 
of  all  times. 

"He  will  need  persistence  to  a  degree,  because  the  higher  his  ideal  the 
more  difficult  of  accomplishment;  his  ideal  will  advance  as  he  advances. 
He  will  fail  many  times,  and  will  see  numerous  alluring  bypaths  that 
promise  rosy  traveling  and  lucrative  results.  'Tliis  one  thing  I  do'  is 
the  motto  for  the  breeder  who  aspires  to  be  really  great.     To  be  sure, 


Ll\  KS'lOCK     lA  KM  I.N  (I  •  40 

the  decision  should  be  made  in  view  of  all  the  facts  and  conditions,  and 
the  materials  should  be  judiciously  chosen,  but  once  the  plan  is  deciderl 
Jipon  it  should  bo  carried  out  as  faithfully  as  the  builder  follows  the  plans 
of  the  architect,  rememberins  that  he  cannot  build  a  cathedral  by  recon- 
structing a  factory. 

"Withal  he  must  be  instant  in  using  the  possible  single  opportunity  of 
a  lifetime.  Great  chances  in  breeding  do  not  offer  themselves  daily,  and 
when  the  breeder  finds  himself  with  promising  and  effective  material  on 
hand  he  needs  must  be  quick  to  use  it  to  the  best  advantage  before  it  is 
gone  forever.  Few  stockmen  realize  how  rapidly  the  herd  will  change  its 
entire  personnel,  and  many  a  man  has  failed  because  his  herd  was  gone 
before  he  saw  his  opportunity.  It  is  not  that  breeding  results  can  be 
short-circuited,  but  it  is  that  often  plans  need  to  be  reconstructed  in 
order  to  secure  the  desired  end  by  altered  methods,  for  it  is  the  end  and 
not  the  method  that  counts  for  success, 

"Courage  is  one  quality  that  must  go  into  the  compound  of  this  man 
who  is  to  be  a  constructive  breeder,  for  it  is  only  a  question  of  time,  if 
he  is  really  doing  things,  when  he  will  be  brought  face  to  face  with  the 
alternative  of  inbreeding  or  of  abandoning  his  line  of  effort.  So  true  is 
this  that  no  man  should  begin  a  course  of  constructive  breeding  unless 
he  has  the  courage  to  'go  the  limit'  when  this  time  comes.  Beating  about 
the  bush  at  a  juncture  of  this  kind,  while  animals  are  growing  older 
day  by  day,  is  like  holding  a  conference  on  ways  and  means  when  the 
house  is  afire.  The  conference  should  have  been  held  before  and  plans 
made  in  advance.  The  issue  of  inbreeding,  like  a  fire  hazard,  is  always 
to  be  counted  upon.  It  may  not  come  but  it  cannot  be  left  out  of  the 
reckoning. 

"After  all  these  artistic  and  perhaps  in  the  minds  of  many  fanciful 
quahties,  it  seems  prosaic  to  mention  that  this  breeder  must  have  sound 
economic  sense  and  know  when  and  how  to  thin  down  numbers,  par- 
ticularly if  a  period  of  depression  overtake  him  in  the  midst  of  things. 
Many  a  herd  has  been  undermined  and  many  a  breeder  ruined  by  mere 
numbers  which  he  allowed  to  accumulate  only  because  he  did  not  have 
the  economic  judgment  to  realize  that  in  dull  times  herds  may  eat  their 
heads  off  and  all  to  no  purpose.  How  to  preserve  the  nucleus  of  the  herd 
under  the  most  trying  conditions  is  an  economic  problem  that  is  always 
in  prospect  just  ahead,  and  one  which  the  breeder  should  be  ready  to 
meet  at  all  times. 

"Judgment  he  must  have  to  select  from  all  that  is  available  the 
comparatively  small  amount  with  which  he  is  to  do  his  work.  This 
judgment  he  must  use  when  tempted  to  waver  from  his  ideal  in  response 
to  the  demaiyls  of  fashion  and  the  lure  of  temporary  gain.  He  must 
rely  upon  it  too  in  checking  his  own  impulses  and  in  refining  or  altering 
his  ideals  in  accordance  ^^'ith  changing  conditions  or  available  material. 
He  is  not  to  confuse  stubbornness  with  conservatism,  nor  an  inconstant 
mind  with  a  progressive  spirit.  This  judgment  he  will  invoke  from  time 
to  time  in  measuring  his  own  ideals  against  the  ideals  of  others,  lest  he 
labor  in  vain  in  perfecting  a  thing  that  the  world  no  longer  needs  or  will 

4 


50  LIVESTOrK    ON    THE    FARM 

buy.  Breeding  histoiy  contains  man}'  j^athetic  instances  of  men  wlio 
liavc  lal)ore(l  with  more  courage  than  judgnunit  in  Ijuilding  up  herds 
that  nobody  wanted. 

''Last  of  all  the  breeder  must  be  manager  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term. 
He  must  deal  with  large  numbers.  No  man  can  succeed  with  small 
herds,  no  matter  how  highly  selected;  indeed,  the  more  highly  selected  the 
less  the  chance  of  reproducing  the  same  excellence  before  the  animals  are 
gone.  If  a  man  could  own  the  best  pair  living  he  certainly  could  not 
expect  to  produce  a  pair  equally  good  during  their  lifetime,  for,  in  this 
direct  sense,  like  does  not  produce  like.  While  mere  numbers  do  not 
count  unless  there  be  quality,  yet  numbers  the  breeder  must  have,  and 
the  larger  the  numbers  of  really  usefvd  animals  the  greater  his  chances  of 
success.  This  manipulation  of  the  breeding  values  involved  in  large 
numbers,  together  with  the  inevitable  buying  and  selling,  the  handling 
of  labor,  and  the  estimation  of  values  all  call  for  those  business  qualities 
generally  spoken  of  as  good  management. 

"These  are  the  qualities  which,  compounded  with  plain,  old-fashioned 
honesty,  will  make  the  master  breeder — able  to  create  new  values  in 
Hve  stock  as  well  as  to  retain  the  best  of  all  that  have  gone  before  it." 


CHAPTER  III 

FARM  ANIMALS 

There  are  different  classes  of  animals  on  the  farm  such  as 
ruminants,  carnivora,  omnivora,  etc.  Ruminants  are  animals 
like  cattle  and  sheep,  which  eat  large  quantities  of  coarse 
feeds  and  have  a  place  to  store  away  this  coarse  and  bulky 
material.  After  they  have  finished  eating,  as  a  rule,  they  lie 
down,  bring  this  food  back  to  the  mouth,  and  chew  it  thor- 
oughly. After  ruminating  or  chewing  this  material  a  second 
time,  it  goes  back  to  the  last  compartment  of  the  stomach  to 
be  digested.  The  large  part  of  the  stomach  where  the  food 
is  stored  is  called  the  paunch.  In  addition  to  the  two  parts  of 
the  stomach  mentioned,  ruminants  have  two  other  compart- 
ments, four  in  all,  which  makes  it  a  very  good  kind  of  animal 
because  it  can  eat  coarse  feeds  such  as  corn  fodder,  hay,  straw, 
grass,  etc. 

Carnivora  are  animals  like  the  dog  and  cat  that  eat  meat 
largely.  Omnivora  or  omnivorous  animals  arc  those  like  the 
hog  which  eat  almost  anything.  The  omnivora  eat  foods 
that  might  otherwise  go  to  waste. 

Nature  of  the  Farm  Animal. — From  the  structural  stand- 
point the  animal  body  is  made  up  of  bones,  lean  meat,  fat 
meat,  glands,  hide,  hair,  horns,  hoofs,  etc.  The  bones  arc 
hard  substances  to  give  the  body  form,  furnish  protection 
to  some  of  the  organs,  and  to  allow  the  animal  to  walk.  The 
lean  meat  is  made  up  of  muscles  attached  to  the  bones,  which 
by  means  of  their  power  to  contract  under  control  enable 
the  animal  to  move  about.  Fat  meat  is  simply  a  store  of 
material  for  future  use  as  food  in  case  the  regular  food  supply 
is  shut  off.  The  hide,  hair  and  horns  give  protection  and  the 
hoofs  give  it  a  wearing  surface  upon  which  to  walk. 

From  the  functional  standpoint  the  body  is  composed  of  its 

51 


52  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

different  organs,  systems,  etc.  Limbs,  muscles,  and  all  func- 
tioning parts  are,  of  course,  of  great  importance.  The  diges- 
tive system  with  its  numerous  glands,  prepares  the  food.  The 
respiratory  system  brings  in  good  air  and  takes  out  bad  air. 
This,  then,  supplies  oxygen  and  takes  out  carbon  dioxide. 
The  circulatory  system  embracing  the  heart  and  blood  vessels 
is  simply  a  means  of  carrying  digested  food  and  the  oxygen  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  bringing  back  the  waste 
products  so  that  they  can  be  thrown  off.  The  carbon  dioxide, 
as  stated  above,  is  thrown  off  by  means  of  the  lungs  and  the 
urea  goes  out  by  way  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder  in  the  form 
of  urine.  The  urine  is  simply  water  with  the  urea  dissolved 
in  it.  The  heart  is  a  force  pump  which  forces  the  blood 
through  tubes  or  the  blood  vessels.  The  blood  is  a  body 
tissue  or  a  medium  by  means  of  which  the  food  and  waste 
products  are  carried.  The  regulative  system  controls  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body.  In  winter  when  the  weather  is  cold 
heat  must  be  generated  and  the  body  kept  warm,  and  in 
summer  when  the  weather  is  warm  there  is  sometimes  too 
much  heat  in  the  body,  because  of  the  work  done  inside  and 
this  must  then  be  taken  out  and  thrown  off.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  the  evaporation  of  the  water  on  the  surface  and  also 
by  radiation  and  conduction. 

Processes  that  go  on  inside  of  the  body,  aside  from  digestion 
and  circulation,  are  called  metabolism. 

The  nervous  system  centers  in  the  brain  and  thence  per- 
meates all  parts  of  the  body.  The  brain  is  the  center  of  ex- 
change between  communications  from  different  parts  of  the 
body,  and  between  the  body  itself  and  the  exterior  world. 
The  nerves  are  the  wires  carrying  the  messages.  There  is 
perfect  harmony  between  all  the  parts  of  a  normal  animal 
body.  If  any  one  part  wants  anything  of  another  part  or 
organ  a  communication  is  sent  to  '^ central"  (the  brain)  and 
it  sends  a  message  to  the  other  part  to  do  the  necessary  work. 
For  example:  An  animal  increases  the  amount  of  work  done. 
This  calls  for  more  action  in  the  cells  and  results  in  more  waste 
products.  It  also  requires  more  oxygen.  By  the  proper 
messages  sent  back  and  forth  the  heart  begins  to  beat  faster 
and  the  respiration  is  accelerated. 


FAKM    ANIMALS  63 

FEEDING 

The  subject  of  feeding  in  connection  witli  farm  animals  is 
one  of  great  importance  and  will  be  discussed  more  in  detail 
later  in  connection  with  the  different  classes  of  animals.  At 
this  point,  however,  a  few  general  principles  are  taken  up, 
such  as  apply  to  all  animals  under  all  conditions. 

Maintenance. — Every  living  animal  must  eat  a  certain 
amount  of  food  for  maintenance.  The  animal  machine  must 
be  kept  running  and  the  body  temperature  must  be  kept  up. 
This  takes  feed  and  before  the  animal  can  do  work,  make  meat, 
milk-  or  wool,  it  must  have  enough  feed  for  maintenance.  Of 
course,  the  animal  can  do  these  things  for  a  short  time  upon 
stored-up  fat  and  from  the  material  of  which  its  body  is  made, 
but  that  is  bad  econom3^  The  animal  machine  has  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  mechanical  machine  like  the  steam  engine. 
The  former  can  do  work  by  using  materials  of  its  own  body 
while  the  latter  cannot. 

The  amount  of  food  an  animal  requires  for  maintenance  may 
vary  from  about  20  per  cent,  of  what  it  eats  to  the  whole 
amount.  The  mature  animal  uses  everything  it  eats  for 
maintenance  and  work  while  the  growing  animal  uses  part  of 
its  food  for  growth.  The  j^oung  animals,  in  order  that  the}- 
ma}^  grow,  must  have  enough  food  to  supplj^  what  is  needed 
for  maintenance  and  something  additional  for  growth.  If 
young  animals  are  required  to  work,  they  must  either  eat  more 
than  enough  for  mere  maintenance  or  grow  less  rapidly. 

What  would  one  think  of  a  livestock  farmer  who  fed  his 
animals  only  enough  for  maintenance.  Yet  many  a  farmer 
carries  his  animals  through  the  winter  in  a  way  that  leaves 
them  lighter  in  the  spring  than  they  were  in  the  fall.  He 
could  not  do  worse  if  he  hired  a  threshing  machine  in  the  spring 
and  kept  it  running  all  summer  in  order  to  do  his  threshing 
in  the  fall.  It  is  worse,  indeed,  because  an  animal  under  such 
conditions  would  become  stunted  and  might  never  recover 
the  full  use  of  its  bodily  functions.  At  any  rate,  it  would  take 
a  long  time  to  bring  the  animal  back  into  condition  so  that 
it  could  make  gains  or  do  work. 

The  rule  then  should  be  to  feed  animals  as  much  as  they  can 
use  to  good  advantage,  because  the  more  they  eat  the  smaller 


54  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

the  percentage  of  maintenance  becomes.  Suppose  an  animal 
requires  2  pounds  of  feed  for  maintenance.  If  it  is  fed  2 
pounds  it  will  not  grow  or  make  gains  at  all.  Suppose  then 
it  is  fed  4  pounds.  It  will  then  have  2  pounds  of  feeds  for 
growth.  But,  if  you  feed  it  2  pounds  more  you  will  increase 
the  ration  by  50  per  cent.,  and  you  will  increase  the  productive 
part  of  the  ration  by  100  per  cent.  This  is  an  important 
principle  that  should  not  be  forgotten. 

Size. — In  feeding  farm  animals  and  especially  the  meat- 
making  animals,  size  is  of  considerable  importance.  By  size 
is  meant  the  possibilities  indicated  by  the  animal  itself  or  by 
its  ancestors.  The  large  steer,  large  sheep  or  large  hog  are 
not  the  most  desirable  kinds  on  the  market.  But  the  matter 
works  out  like  this:  A  200-pound  hog,  which  is  one  of  the 
popular  kinds  on  the  market,  can  be  made  more  quickly  and 
more  economically  from  600-pound  ancestry  than  from  300- 
pound  ancestry.  The  younger  an  animal  the  more  econom- 
ically it  produces  its  gains  in  live  weight  and  the  more  rapidly 
it  grows.  This  is  true  because  it  eats  the  most,  in  relation 
to  its  size,  at  this  time.  The  machine  also  is  in  the  best  work- 
ing order.  It  is  true,  however,  that  a  small,  rapidly  growing 
animal  does  not  put  on  so  many  pounds  a  day,  because  it  is 
small,  as  a  larger  animal  that  does  not  grow  quite  so  rapidly. 
This  makes  it  possible  to  be  able  to  feed  animals  beyond  the 
babyhood  stage. 

To  consider  further,  it  is  admitted  without  any  hesitation 
that  animals  grow  till  they  are  mature  and  then  stop  growing. 
This  stoppage  in  their  growth  is  not  sudden  but  gradual. 
Therefore,  the  closer  to  maturity  an  animal  is  fed  the  more 
slowly  it  grows  and,  therefore,  the  larger  is  the  part  of  its 
feed  which  goes  to  maintenance.  The  principle  applies  to 
cattle  and  to  sheep  as  well  as  to  hogs.  And  it  is  clearly  evi- 
dent that  the  size  of  the  breeding  stock  from  which  we  produce 
our  meat-making  animals  is  a  factor  of  considerable  magnitude. 
Heavy  draft  horses,  also,  are  worth  more  per  pound  than  liglit 
draft  horses. 

Inheritance. — Animals  are  not  made  in  a  year  or  in  a 
generation.  It  takes  a  long  time  to  breed  and  develop  a 
really   good   type.     The   characteristics   of   the   parents   are 


FARM    ANIMALS  55 

tran.siiiitted  to  the  offspring.  The  parents  may  even  adopt 
certain  characteristics  and  then  transmit  these  to  their  off- 
spring. The  offspring  of  parents  that  have  been  injured  by 
improper  feeding,  care,  etc.,  will  not  be  such  good  feeders  a^ 
the  offspring  of  ancestors  not  thus  mistreated.  This  should 
put  a  man  on  his  guard,  either  when  he  is  buying  or  breeding 
animals  for  his  feedlot. 

Regularity  in  Feeding. — The  animal  body  is  a  machine  that 
runs  itself.  It  gets  into  habits  and  if  the  animal  is  to  do  well 
these  habits  must  be  conformed  to.  On  account  of  this  fact 
an  animal  should  be  fed  regularly,  at  the  same  hours  each  day. 
Every  observing  man  has  noticed  that  when  the  regular  meal- 
time comes  along  considerable  hunger  is  apparent.  If  the 
meal  is  not  taken  this  hunger  disappears  in  part  even  though 
the  need  for  food  is  greater  after  mealtime  than  at  mealtime 
when  the  meal  was  not  taken.  When  the  regular  mealtime 
comes  the  machinery  of  digestion  and  metabolism  is  set  in 
motion.  If  the  food  is  not  there  to  be  worked  upon  there  is  a 
waste  of  digestive  fluids  and  a  loss  of  energy  together  with  a 
weakening  of  the  body  generally.  If  then  a  meal  is  taken  late 
it  cannot  be  so  well  digested  or  used.  The  good  stockman, 
therefore,  feeds  his  stock  regularly. 

QUALITY 

Quality  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  one  of  the  most 
frequently  misused  of  all  the  terms  that  are  dealt  with  in 
animal  husbandry.  The  term  is  frequently  used  to  designate 
everything  in  an  animal  that  is  good  as  distinguished  from 
everything  that  is  bad.  The  term,  however,  has  a  very  defi- 
nite meaning.  Quality  really  refers  to  the  fineness  of  grain 
of  the  body  tissues  and  especially  of  the  muscle  fiber.  If  this 
is  fine  the  animal  is  fine  throughout.  So  we  judge  fineness  of 
quality  or  good  quality  by  the  fineness  of  hair  and  bone  and 
smoothness  of  skin. 

Fine  or  good  quality  in  an  animal  is  the  same  as  fine  or  good 
quality  in  an  orange  or  in  a  piece  of  cloth.  Good  qualit}^  in 
an  animal  means  a  fine  muscle  fiber,  and  this  means  lots  of 
muscle  cells.     This  again  results  in  lots  of  power  in  the  horse 


56  LIVESTOCK    OX    THE    FARM 

and  in  a  large  proportion  of  lean  meat  of  fine  grain  and  good 
flavor  in  the  meat-making  animals. 

It  is  clear  from  this  that  an  animal  of  fine  or  good  quality 
is  a  high-power  machine  and  can  do  more  Avork  of  any  kind 
than  an  animal  of  coarse  quality.  Labor  or  meat,  milk  or 
wool  are  produced  better  by  the  animal  with  quality  than  by 
any  other. 

Delicacy. — Quality  must  not  be  emphasized  to  such  an 
extent  that  other  points  just  as  valuable  are  forgotten.  If 
this  is  done  an  inferior  animal  results.  An  unbalanced  animal 
of  little  merit  may  be  one  with  lots  of  good  or  fine  quality  and 
not  enough  size  or  constitution. 

WEALTH  OF  FLESH 

The  term  ''wealth  of  flesh  ^'  was  introduced  by  Amos  Cruick- 
shank,  the  famous  early  English  livestock  breeder  who  ought 
by  right  to  be  called  the  father  of  improved  livestock.  By 
this  term  is  meant  thickness  of  covering  of  lean  meat.  This  is 
a  valuable  point  in  all  the  animals  of  the  farm. 

Since  the  muscle  cell  is  the  seat  of  action  and  power  in  the 
animal  body,  a  thickness  of  covering  of  lean  meat  or  muscle 
gives  the  horse  more  strength,  the  meat-,  milk-  or  wool-making 
animal  more  power  to  make  its  particular  product.  It  also 
furnishes  a  larger  amount  of  lean  meat  in  proportion  to  bone 
and  fat.  This  is  what  practically  all  consumers  of  meat  are 
looking  for.  One  very  seldom  sees  or  hears  of  a  person  going 
to  a  meat  market  and  buying  meat  because  of  the  fat  they  get. 
As  a  rule  when  people  buy  fat  meat  it  is  because  they  are  too 
poor  to  buy  the  lean. 

The  way  to  tell  when  an  animal  is  well  covered  with  lean 
meat  is  to  observe  it  when  it  is  not  fat.  The  entire  body  of  the 
thick-meated  animal  is  well  covered.  The  back  should  be 
l)road,  the  hips  and  ribs  well  covered,  the  side  and  flank  thick 
and  firm,  and  the  flesh  generally  elastic  to  the  touch,  not  soft 
and  flabby.  If  the  flesh  of  an  animal  is  made  up  of  too  much 
fat  it  is  either  soft  and  flabby  or  firm  and  not  elastic. 

When  an  indentation  is  made  in  the  carcass  of  an  animal 
after  death  there  is  a  tendency  for  it  to  remain.  This  is 
similar  to  hard  fat  on  a  living  animal.     Soft  fat  can  be  thrown 


FARM    ANIMALS  57 

into  waves  by  a  sudden  motion.  Lean  meat  lias  a  character- 
istic firmness  and  elasticity. 

Breeding  for  Lean. — When  an  animal  is  born  it  is  endowed 
with  or  has  the  possibility  to  develop  a  certain  amount  of 
muscle  or  lean  meat.  With  proper  feeding,  care  and  exercise 
this  can  be  developed.  After  it  has  been  developed,  no  more 
can  be  produced.  More  feeding  will  produce  more  fat  but 
no  more  lean  meat.  How  then,  can  this  characteristic  of 
our  farm  animals  be  improved?     Only  by  breeding. 

In  order  to  get  this  ''wealth  of  flesh"  or  thick  covering  of 
lean  meat  one  must  use  sire  and  dams  that  have  this  character- 
istic, and  then  keep  on  selecting  animals  that  are  the  best 
developed  in  this  respect.  Along  with  this,  of  course,  must 
go  feeding,  care  and  environment. 

CONSTITUTION 

If  an  animal  is  to  be  a  good  and  profitable  animal  it  must  be 
healthy,  strong  and  vigorous.  That  is,  must  be  of  good  con- 
stitution. It  should  be  able  to  resist  disease  and  everj^thing 
else  that  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  life,  and  it  must  also  be 
able  to  consume  and  put  to  profitable  use  large  ciuantities  of 
feed. 

Since  the  chest  cavity  is  the  power  house  for  this  animal 
machine,  it  must  be  well  developed.  This  cavity  contains  the 
heart  and  lungs.  A  capacious  chest  cavity  indicates  a  good 
constitution.  The  chest  cavity  should  he  broad  and  deep. 
The  width  also  should  be  carried  well  up  and  well  down.  Con- 
stitution is  determined  by  noting  the  spring  of  the  ribs  of  an 
animal,  also  the  depth  of  the  chest.  The  ribs  should  be  well 
sprung  out  from  the  backbone  behind  the  shoulder  and  should 
carry  this  fullness  well  down  toward  the  elbow  of  the  front 
leg.  The  front  legs  should  also  be  set  well  apart.  The  chest 
should  be  deep  so  that  when  looking  at  the  animal  from  the 
side  the  chest  wall  is  well  dowai.  As  a  rule,  it  should  be  down 
even  with  the  underline  of  the  belly. 

Some  people  measure  constitution  with  a  tape  line,  but  this 
is  obviously  not  the  best  way.  An  animal  may  have  lots  of 
fat  on  the  outside  of  its  ribs,  giving  it  plenty  of  heart  girth, 
but  such  a  condition  does  not  mean  a  good  constitution.     An 


58  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

animal  may  have  a  diamond-shaped  chest,  which  would  show 
a  good  measurement  for  heart  girth,  but  this  would  not 
indicate  as  good  a  constitution  as  if  the  chest  were  more  nearly 
oval  as  Q.     Only  the  ''  eye  of  the  master  "  determines  the  value 

of  an  animal. 

This  matter  of  constitution  like  the  covering  of  lean  meat 
or  muscle  is  an  inherited  characteristic  and  is  produced  by 
breeding.  It  can  be  developed  by  feeding  and  environment 
only  to  the  extent  determined  for  the  animal  by  its  ancestors. 

It  is  said  that  one  out  of  every  seven  persons  that  die  is 
taken  off  by  consumption  or  human  tuberculosis.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  said  that  no  one  can  walk  in  the  streets  of  an 
ordinary  city  without  being  exposed  to  the  disease.  The 
germs  of  this  disease,  or  tubercle  bacilli,  are  so  prevalent  that 
they  are  floating  in  the  air.  Tuberculosis  also  is  a  contagious 
disease.  It  is  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the  most,  dreaded  malady 
to  which  the  human  race  is  subject.  Why  is  it  then  that  only 
one  out  of  seven  people  is  killed  by  it? 

When  man  was  created  provision  was  made  for  destroying 
foreign  germs  as  they  were  taken  into  the  body.  This  is  done 
by  the  white  blood  corpuscles  or  phagocytes  working  with 
other  agencies.  In  animals,  men  included,  that  are  strong 
constitutionally  and  are  healthy  and  vigorous  the  work  of 
destruction  is  comparatively  easy,  but  even  such  animals 
may  contract  disease  w^hen  the  germs  are  introduced  in  large 
numbers.  Under  ordinary  conditions  man  is  strong  enough. 
Consequently  only  one  out  of  seven  dies  with  the  disease 
while  all  of  them  probably  inhale  the  germs. 

Farm  animals  that  are  bred  to  be  strong  in  constitution  and 
so  fed  and  handled  that  their  strength  increases  as  they  grow, 
are  much  more  likely  to  be  free  from  disease  than  others. 
But  this  is  not  the  main  point.  The  principal  consideration 
in  this  connection  is  that  such  animals  are  better  feeders  and 
producers  and  make  more  money  for  their  owners. 

LENGTH  OF  BODY 

All  farm  animals  should  l)e  of  good  size,  l)e  good  in  quality, 
have  a  good  covering  of  lean  mc^at,  and  be  good  in  constitution. 
And  all  except  the  horse  should  l)e  long  in  bod3\     The  pur- 


FARM    ANIMALS  59 

l)()So  in  jiiowiiig  such  aniinals,  excepting  the  horse,  is  to  make 
meat,  milk,  nv  wool,  and  to  reproduce  their  kind. 

People  who  buy  the  meat  from  such  animals  are  willing  to 
pay  more  for  the  parts  that  come  from  the  back,  sides  and 
rear  parts  of  the  animal.  Thus  the  longer  the  animal  is  in 
the  body  the  greater  Avill  be  the  proportion  of  high-priced  meat 
and  the  smaller  will  be  the  proportion  of  cheap  meat.  The 
front  part  of  the  animal  from  the  rear  of  the  shoulder  forward 
is  the  cheaper  part  of  the  carcass. 

Constitution  and  Capacity. — Length  of  body  also  has  a 
bearing  upon  the  capacity  for  consuming  feed  and,  therefore, 
upon  constitution.  If  the  body  is  long  there  is  plenty  of  room 
back  of  the  chest  for  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  and  these 
do  not  crowd  the  heart  and  lungs. 

If  any  animal  is  to  do  well  it  must  eat  plenty  of  feed.  If  it 
is  to  eat  lots  of  feed  it  must  have  large  capacity  in  its  digestive 
apparatus  and  this  means  a  long,  broad  and  deep  middle 
piece.  The  power  house  or  chest  cavity  containing  the  vital 
organs  must  also  be  large. 

As  to  the  influence  of  length  of  body  upon  reproductive 
capacity  the  following  written  by  the  author  for  the  Breeders' 
Gazette,  Feb.  14,  1912,  may  be  of  interest: 

"Correlation  of  Type  and  Prolificacy  in  Hogs. — The  accom- 
panying Figs.  (6,  7,  8)  show  three  Poland  China  gilts,  together 
with  their  first  litters  at  the  time  the  gilts  were  about  one  year 
old.  While  the  gilts  are  pure  breds,  the  pigs  "were  sired  by  a 
Chester  White  boar.  These  three  gilts  w^ere  litter  mates  and 
during  the  winter  of  1910-11  were  taken  to  the  judging  room 
and  placed  in  accordance  with  the  breeding-hog  scorecard 
used  at  the  Ilhnois  Experiment  Station.  They  were  then  given 
herd  places  in  the  way  they  were  placed  in  the  judging  room 
and  put  into  the  l^treeding  herd.  They  w^ere  all  bred  to  the 
same  boar  and  all  farrowed  within  a  comparatively  short 
time. 

''The  gilt  that  w^as  placed  first  or  (No.  1),  Fig.  6,  as  will  be 
seen,  farrowed  a  litter  of  nine  pigs.  The  one  that  was  placed 
second  (No.  2)  Fig.  7,  farrow^ed  five  pigs,  while  the  one  that  was 
placed  third,  Fig.  8,  farrowed  one  pig.  This  seems  to  have 
})een  a  very  marked  difference  in  prolificacy,  and  part  of  it 


Fig.  G. — Type  vs.  prolificacy.     Poland  C'hiiiM  <_nli   Xn.  1 


Fig.  7. — Type  vs.  prolificacj-.     Poland  China  gilt  No.  2. 


FARM    ANIMALS 


61 


may  have  been  accidental,  but  there  undoubtedly  was  correla- 
tion between  type  and  proHficacy.  In  other  words,  gilts  that 
are  selected  according  to  the  proper  standard  or  those  that 
are  the  best  individuals  from  the  standpoint  of  type  seem  also 
to  produce  the  largest  litters. 

*' Another  illustration  of  this  same  point  is  brought  out  in 
Figs.  9  and  10.      These  show  seven  Chester  White  gilts  when 


,3R...£E3 


-jb.'! 


Flu.  <s. — Type  vs.  prolificacy.     Poland  China  gilt  No.  .3. 

they  were  approximately  one  year  old,  together  with  their 
litters.  One  of  these  Htters  was  sired  by  a  Berkshire  boar,  and 
the  rest  were  all  sired  by  a  Chester  White  boar.  These  gilts 
were  also  placed  in  accordance  with  the  mentioned  standard 
of  excellence.  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4,  gilts  shown  in  Fig.  9, 
farrowed  a  total  of  35  pigs  and  raised  practically  all  of  them; 
while  Nos.  5,  6  and  7,  three  gilts  shown  in  Fig.  10,  farrowed  a 
total  of  11  pigs,  and  four  of  these  were  farrowed  dead.  Nos. 
1,  2,  3  and  4  (Fig.  9)  and  two  of  the  gilts  in  Fig.  10  were  all 
litter  mates.  One  of  the  pigs  in  Fig.  10  was  from  another 
litter  and  from  an  unprolific  strain,  and  she  farrowed  only  one 


62 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


pig.  Barring  this  one,  the  other  two  gilts  from  Fig.  10,  which 
were  htter  mates  to  those  of  Fig.  9,  farrowed  10  pigs  or  an 
average  of  five  per  sow;  while  the  four  gilts  of  Fig.  9  farrowed 


-r^-e 


"""^^^MiiZ 


Fig.  9. — Type  vs.  prolificacy.     Chester  White  gilts  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4. 

an  average  of  almost  nine  pigs.  This  again  is  a  striking 
illustration  showing  the  correlation  between  type  and  pro- 
lificacy. 


Fig.  10. — Type  vs.  prolificacy.     Chester  White  gilts  Nos.  5,  G  and  7. 


"  Granting  again  that  part  of  this  may  have  been  accidental, 
the  difference  seems  to  indicate  a  tendency  for  sows  of  the 
correct  type  to  produce  larger  litters  than  those  that  are  not 


FARM    ANIMALS 


03 


SO  good  individually.  Furtheniioie,  the  poorest  individuals 
as  shown  in  the  figures  cannot  be  considered  as  very  inferior/' 

Length  of  body,  then,  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  Horse. — While  the  meat-,  milk-,  and  wool-bearing 
animals  should  be  long  in  body,  the  horse  should  be  rather 
short.  It  should  be  short  in  the  back  with  good  length  in  the 
belly.  The  back  should  be  short  so  as  to  give  more  strength. 
A  long  stringer,  joist  or  board  is  more  easily  broken  than  a 
short  one  and  so  the  horse  with  a  short  ])ack  is  stronger  than 


Fig.  11. — A  type  of  young  animal  that  has  good  prospects  for  the  future. 


one  with  a  long  back.  The  underline  or  belly  of  the  horse 
should  not  be  too  short.  With  length  here,  there  is  more 
room  for  feed.  There  is  also  more  room  for  the  feet.  If  the 
body  is  too  short  underneath  there  is  danger  that  the  hind 
feet  will  come  into  contact  with  the  fore  feet  while  the  horse 
is  in  action. 

FORM 

An  animal  should  also  be  w^ell  put  together,  well  balanced, 
sound,  and  of  the  form  required  for  its  class  and  type.     It 


04  LlVIJSrocK    ON"    TUK    FARM 

must  be  remembered  that  the  young  of  all  animals,  except  the 
pig  soon  after  birth,  do  not  have  the  same  form  as  the  matui-e 
and  finished  product.  They  are  more  rangy  and  upstanding. 
The  accompanying  illustration  is  a  good  example  of  a  young 
animal  with  good  prospects  of  a  fine  finished  specimen. 

CONDITION 

By  condition  is  meant  the  workableness  of  the  machine  and 
the  amount  of  fat  carried  by  the  animal. 

When  an  animal  is  out  of  condition  it  is  in  worse  shape  than 
an  old  worn-out  automobile  or  a  broken-down  threshing 
machine.  Worn-out  and  broken-down  mechanical  machines, 
can,  with  a  little  time  and  some  expense,  be  repaired,  but  when 
an  animal  is  out  of  condition  it  takes  a  long  time  to  get  it 
back  into  running  order.  It  requires  feed  for  maintenance, 
time,  labor,  etc.  Even  then  an  animal  may  never  get  back 
into  as  good  ''shape"  as  it  was  before. 

Lack  of  condition  or  disorder  of  the  animal  machine  is 
brought  about  by  sickness,  disease,  lack  of  feed,  too  much  feed, 
improper  housing,  etc. 

To  determine  an  animal's  condition,  appearance  and  handling 
qualities  should  be  observed.  An  animal  that  is  in  good  con- 
dition will  have  a  glossy  and  sleek  appearance,  the  hair  and 
skin  will  be  clean  and  smooth  and  the  animal  will  be  bright, 
active  and  happy.  By  handling  qualities  are  meant  pliability 
and  looseness  of  skin.  This  simply  means  that  the  skin  is  in 
good  working  condition.  And  if  the  skin  on  the  outside  of  the 
animal  is  in  good  working  condition  then  the  skin  on  the  in- 
side, which  is  the  inside  of  the  digestive  tract  and  does  the 
work  of  digestion,  is  also  in  good  order.  The  relationship 
between  these  two  is  clearly  evident.  The  inside  of  the  diges- 
tive tract  and  the  outside  skin  are  one  continuous  structure 
or  tissue. 

Condition  is  also  indicated  by  the  amount  of  fat  an  animal 
carries.  An  animal  may  be  in  breeding  condition  as  when  it 
carries  just  enough  fat  to  produce  the  best  kind  of  offspring. 
Or  it  may  be  in  market  condition  and  have  fat  enough  for  the 
market  requirement.     Of  course,  animals  vary  a  great  deal 


FARM    ANIMALS  (k) 

in  both  of  these  fields.     Some  are  very  fat  aiul  others  are  very 
lean,  both  for  market  and  breeding  purposes. 

TEMPERAMENT 

By  temperament,  frequently  spoken  of  as  nervous  tempera- 
ment, or  nerve  force,  etc.,  is  meant  the  power  and  willingness 
to  do  things.  No  matter  how  large  or  good  a  farm,  factory, 
or  other  business  one  has,  if  it  is  to  do  business  in  the  right 
way  there  must  be  a  capable  man  in  charge.  This  is  the 
''power  behind  the  throne"  and  the  business  will  not  go 
without  this  factor. 

So  it  is  with  the  animal  body.  The  operator  and  driver  of 
all  the  activities  of  the  body  is  the  nerve  force  centered  in  the 
brain  and  communicated  to  all  parts  of  the  body  by  means 
of  the  nerves.  This  factor  must  be  well  developed  so  that 
the  animal  can  drive  the  forces  of  its  ])ody  with  vigor  and 
action.  Temperament  or  nerve  force  is  not  nervousness  or 
fretfulness.  It  is  alertness,  responsiveness  to  suggestion, 
style  in  carriage,  vigor  in  action,  and  power  in  doing  the  things 
for  which  the  animal  is  bred. 

The  difference  in  value  between  different  animals  frequently 
is  not  so  much  in  difference  of  muscular  development  as  dif- 
ference in  nerve  force.  It  is  not  intended  to  minimize  the 
value  of  muscular  development  but  the  two  must  be  developed 
together.     One  is  just  as  important  as  the  other. 

It  is  a  fact  that  when  a  house  is  on  fire  two  men  can  carr}- 
a  piano  which  at  other  times  it  would  take  four  men  to  carry. 
Also,  two  men  can  hold  down  an  ordinary  man  while  it  takes 
four  to  hold  down  a  maniac.  Cases  like  these  which  show 
extreme  nerve  stimulus  indicate  possibilities  and  also  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  lack  of  productive  capacity  of  animals  is 
due  perhaps  more  often  to  a  lack  of  nerve  force  than  to  other 
factors. 

The  indication  of  well-developed  force  of  this  kind  are  skull 
capacity  for  brains  and  well-developed  eyes  together  with  the 
factors  mentioned  above. 


CHAPTER  IV 
FEEDS  FOR  ANIMALS 

Feeds  are  such  substances  as  grass,  hay,  grain,  etc.,  which 
animals  can  eat  and  from  which  they  can  derive  some  benefit. 
In  order  to  be  a  feed,  the  material  must  be  digestible  and  in 
order  to  be  a  good  feed  it  must  not  require  too  much  work  to 
digest  it.  A  poor  feed  requires  almost  as  much  work  to  digest 
as  the  good  the  animal  gets  out  of  it. 

Timothy,  when  cut  while  still  green  and  tender,  makes  a 
good  hay,  but  if  allowed  to  get  too  old  and  ripe,  the  stem 
becomes  hard  and  woody,  the  hay  made  from  it  is  not  so  good. 
So  also  the  new  sprouts,  green  leaves  and  new  growth  at  the 
ends  of  the  limbs  of  many  trees  make  excellent  feed  while  the 
lumber  made  out  of  the  tree  is  not  classed  as  a  feed  under  any 
condition.  The  author  knows  of  a  herd  of  cows  that  were 
herded  in  the  spring  of  the  year  in  jack  pine  brush.  The  jack 
pines  send  out  new  shoots  very  rapidly.  The  cattle  relished 
these  very  much,  gave  milk  and  grew  fat  on  this  feed.  Hay, 
then,  should  be  cut  before  it  becomes  too  ripe. 

Feeds  for  animals  also  are  substances  that  will  burn,  though 
sometimes  their  water  content  must  be  driven  off  before  they 
will  burn.  Milk  roots,  grass,  etc.,  are  in  this  class.  But  all 
substances  that  burn  are  not  feeds.  Thus  wood  and  coal, 
which  make  the  best  kind  of  fuel  are  not  feeds.  They  are  not 
digestible. 

Digestion. — Digestion  is  a  process  in  the  animal  body  by 
means  of  which  the  feeds  are  reduced  to  the  substances  of 
which  they  are  made.  The  animal  body  cannot  use  a  feed 
such  as  hay,  corn,  oats,  etc.  It  must  have  the  materials  or 
compounds  of  which  these  feeds  are  made.  Thus,  in  order 
to  be  able  to  understand  feeding  one  must  known  something 
about  chemistry.  At  least,  he  must  know  which  feeds  are 
good  for  growth,  which  for  maintenance,  which  for  fattening, 
etc.     The  reason  that  some  persons  fail  as  feeders  of  animals 

60 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  67 

is  because  they  have  the  feeds  in  mind  and  not  the  substances 
of  which  the  feeds  are  made. 

The  process  of  digestion  then  is  simply  one  of  breaking  up 
a  feed  into  its  component  parts.  What  the  animal  wants  is 
protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  mineral  matter,  and  water. 
These  are  the  materials  or  compounds  of  which  feeds  are 
made.     They  are  called  nutrients. 

PROTEIN 

Protein  is  the  substance  used  by  the  animal  for  growth. 
It  is  a  chemical  compound  made  up  of  carbon  (C),  hydrogen 
(H),  oxygen  (O),  nitrogen  (N)  and  sometimes  sulphur.  These 
latter  substances  are  called  elements. 

Carbon  is  a  solid  substance  and  in  its  purest  form  is  found 
in  the  diamond  and  also  in  graphite  from  which  the  lead  of  a 
lead  pencil  is  made.  Coal  also  is  largely  composed  of  carbon. 
This  element  also  makes  up  a  large  part  of  all  plant  and  ani- 
mal or  organic  growths. 

Nitrogen  is  a  gas  and  is  one  of  the  elements  of  air.  The 
other  important  gas  in  this  mixture,  the  air,  is  oxygen.  This 
is  the  substance  that  is  needed  to  make  a  fire  burn  or  to  make 
the  food  burn  in  the  body  of  an  animal.  A  bale  of  hay  burned 
in  the  body  of  an  animal  by  metabolism  gives  off  just  as  much 
heat  as  when  burned  by  means  of  fire  in  a  stove  or  in  the  open 
air.  Nitrogen  is  an  inert  gas  and  is  mixed  with  the  oxygen 
to  make  air. 

Hydrogen  as  such  is  also  a  gas,  but  when  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  are  put  together  in  the  right  proportions  chemically, 
two  parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen,  it  makes  water. 
Oxygen  however,  weighs  about  sixteen  times  as  much  as 
hydrogen. 

When  these  four  substances — carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen — are  chemically  combined  the  result  is  protein. 
This  protein  is  used  by  the  animal  for  growth  and  also  to  some 
extent  for  maintenance. 

Growth. — The  lean  meat,  the  glands,  hide,  hair,  horns  and 
hoofs  of  the  animal  are  made  up  largely  of  protein.  When 
the  animal  body  is  making  these  tissues  in  its  body  it  is  said 
to  be  growing.     From  this  it  is  very  obvious  that  if  the 


68  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

animal  is  to  grow  it  must  have  enough  protein  to  make  the  new 
tissues  as  well  as  to  maintain  that  part  of  the  tissues  already- 
made. 

To  feed  a  young  animal  that  is  supposed  to  grow,  upon 
feeds  which  contain  only  just  enough  protein  for  maintenance, 
and  then  expect  it  to  grow  would  be  like  asking  a  carpenter  to 
build  a  brick  house  out  of  a  pile  of  lumber.  It  simply  cannot 
be  done. 

All  natural  feeds  such  as  the  grasses  and  grains  contain 
some  protein.  Those  that  contain  the  least,  such  as  rice, 
potatoes  and  corn,  perhaps  still  contain  enough  for  mainte- 
nance. This  is  a  very  wise  provision  of  nature.  For  if  God 
in  His  wisdom  had  not  made  feeds  in  this  way  what  would  not 
man  in  his  ignorance  have  done  long  ago?  Many  an  animal 
has  for  days  and  months  been  fed  on  nothing  but  corn.  Ex- 
cept for  this  provision  such  animals  would  long  since  have 
starved  to  death.  Nothing  else  in  the  feeds  for  animals  can 
take  the  place  of  protein  and  even  if  an  animal  were  fed  all  it 
could  eat  of  everything  else  but  protein  it  would  starve  to 
death  with  a  full  stomach. 

Protein  may  also  be  used  in  the  animal  body  for  producing 
heat,  energy  and  fat  but  these  are  secondary  considerations, 
for  this  nutrient.     It  is  both  harmful  and  expensive. 

As  an  example  of  protein,  gluten  may  be  mentioned.  The 
white  of  egg  and  lean  meat  are  almost  pure  protein.  Cheese 
also  is  largely  protein. 

Overfeeding. — It  is  also  important  that  an  animal  be  not 
overfed  upon  this  most  important  nutrient.  This  is  nicely 
illustrated  by  the  following: 

Three  bunches  of  pigs  were  fed  by  the  writer.  Lot  1  was 
underfed,  by  giving  the  pigs  all  the  corn  and  water  they  could 
eat.  Corn  contains  only  about  enough  protein  for  main- 
tenance. Lot  2  was  fed  corn,  middhngs,  milk  and  tankage  in 
quantities  to  make  a  balanced  ration.  Lot  3  was  fed  the 
same  ration  as  lot  2  but  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  pigs 
more  protein.  They  were  given  more  of  the  protein  feeds  and 
less  of  the  carbohydrates.  They  were  overfed  on  protein. 
The  pigs  were  started  on  these  rations  at  weaning  time  when 
they  were  about  two  months  old  and  were  fed  till  they  were 


FKKDS    FOR    ANIMALS  00 

eight  months  old.  At  this  time  the  pigs  in  lot  1  (corn-fed) 
weighed  80  pounds  per  head.  Lot  2  (balanced  ration)  weighed 
an  average  of  290  pounds,  and  lot  3  (overfed  on  protein) 
weighed  an  average  of  170  pounds. 

In  lot  1  the  pigs  did  not  grow  because  they  did  not  have 
the  necessary  material  for  growth.  Corn  is  lacking  in  protein 
and  also  in  mineral  matter.  While  this  is  true  for  corn  as  a 
growing  ration,  corn  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  that  can  be  grown. 
It  must,  however,  like  all  other  feeds,  be  properly  used.  It 
should  be  used  as  part  of  the  growing  ration  which  is  supple- 
mented with  some  protein  feed  or  feeds,  and  also  as  a  fattening 
or  maintenance  ration. 

It  has  been  shown  by  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  that 
heifers  fed  on  a  ration  of  corn  and  the  products  of  corn,  in- 
cluding the  corn  plant,  in  a  way  to  give  a  balanced  ration,  will 
develop  and  perform  their  functions  of  reproduction  and  milk- 
giving  in  a  normal  way.  Two  other  lots  of  cattle,  fed  upon 
rations  made  from  wheat  and  oats  respectively,  did  not  do 
so  well  as  those  fed  upon  corn.  In  many  cases,  the  calves 
came  weak  and  dead.  This  indicates  very  clearly  that  corn 
is  one  of  the  best  farm  feeds.  Many  people  will  also  testify 
to  this  when  they  use  corn  as  cornmeal  mush,  corn  bread,  corn 
flakes,  etc.  And  where  is  the  swine  grower  who  is  willing  to 
trade  corn  for  an  equal  amount  of  any  other  feed  of  the  same 
class?  Corn  is  one  of  the  best  feeds.  But  like  all  other  feeds 
it  must  be  properly  used. 

In  order  to  avoid  overfeeding  on  protein  the  proper  quanti- 
ties of  the  right  feeds  should  be  measured  or  weighed  out  to 
the  animals.  When  animals  are  fed  in  groups  like  sheep  or 
pigs  the  protein  feeds,  which  frequently  are  quite  concentrated, 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  carbohydrate  feeds  so 
that  an  individual,  because  of  the  fact  that  it  may  get  to  the 
trough  first  or  be  able  to  crowd  the  others  out,  will  not  get 
too  much. 

The  writer's  attention  was  once  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
largest  and  best  pigs  in  a  bunch  had  died.  Upon  inquiry 
it  was  found  that  the  bunch  of  pigs  had  been  fed  tankage, 
clear  tankage  in  a  V-shaped  trough.  Tankage,  which  is  a 
packing-house  product,  made  of  ofTal  from  the  slaughtering 


70  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

floor,  is  very  rich  in  protein.  The  pigs  that  were  able  to  get 
the  most  of  this  actually  got  enough  to  kill  them.  The  same 
principle  applies  to  all  animals. 

Feeding  an  animal  too  much  protein  is  similar  but  much 
worse  than  feeding  a  threshing  machine  more  grain  than  it 
can  handle.  The  machine  is  clogged.  So  with  the  animal 
body.  The  machinery  of  metabolism  is  clogged  and  the 
surplus  protein  material  becomes  poison.  It  also  seems  to 
be  a  fact  that  animals  once  overfed  on  protein  become  more  or 
less  permanently  injured. 

Protein  Feeds. — As  said  above,  all  feeds  contain  more  or 
less  of  all  the  principal  nutrients.  Those  feeds  which  contain 
considerable  protein  are  classed  as  protein  feeds.  There  is  no 
fixed  law  classifying  the  feeds.  But  as  good  a  rule  as  any 
would  be  to  classify  those  as  protein  feeds  which  furnish  as 
much  of  this  nutrient  as  the  animal  needs  to  supply  its  needs, 
or  even  more  than  that  amount. 

If  an  animal  gets  as  much  of  each  of  the  nutrients,  protein, 
carbohydrates,  fat,  as  well  as  mineral  matter  and  water  as  it 
needs  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  being  fed,  it  is  said  to 
have  a  balanced  ration. 

The  most  important  home-grown  protein  feeds  available  to 
the  farmer  may  roughly  be  named  as  follows :  milk,  alfalfa,  clover, 
flax,  soy  beans,  cow  peas  and  Canada  field  peas.  Those  of  a 
commercial  nature  are  bran,  oil  meal,  tankage,  cottonseed  meal. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  roughages  or  coarse  feeds  so  some- 
times animals  such  as  growing  pigs  cannot  eat  enough  of  these 
to  furnish  the  required  amount  of  protein.  For  mature 
animals,  these  feeds  furnish  too  much  protein.  This  fact 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  providing  pasture  for  animals. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

Carbohydrate  material  is  the  part  of  a  feed  or  the  nutrient 
like  sugar  and  starch.  It  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen.  The  latter  two  are  always  in  the  proportion  in 
which  they  combine  to  make  water,  namely,  two  parts  of 
hydrogen  to  one  part  of  oxygen.  Carbohydrate  is  used  in  the 
animal  body  for  furnishing  energy  and  heat,  and  for  making 
fat. 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  71 

The  animal  body  cannot  make  energy;  neither  can  a  steam 
engine.  These  machines,  both  the  animal  and  mechanical 
machine,  must  have  as  feed  or  fuel,  the  substances  that  will 
burn.  That  is,  when  oxygen  is  brought  into  contact  with 
them  under  certain  conditions,  they  will  break  down  into 
simpler  compounds  and  give  off  the  energy  stored  in  them. 
The  conditions  under  which  this  happens  in  ordinary  combus- 
tion as  in  a  stove  or  firebox  under  a  boiler,  is  a  high  tempera- 
ture. In  the  animal  body  it  is  the  metabolism  or  the  work  of 
the  living  cell  that  brings  about  the  transformation  to  liberate 
the  energy  stored  in  these  compounds. 

The  fact  that  these  substances  are  chemical  compounds  of 
considerable  complexity  means  that  they  are  a  source  of  energy. 
The  animal  uses  this  energy  for  living,  walking,  digesting  its 
food,  and  doing  all  the  internal  work  called  metabolism. 

Storage  of  Energy. — How  does  this  energy  happen  to  be 
stored  in  the  form  of  chemical  compounds  in  plants  and  what 
is  energy?  Energy  is  the  ability  to  do  work.  So  when  the 
steam  engine  uses  fuel  it  can  do  work.  So,  also,  when  the 
animal  eats  feed  it  can  do  work.  This  energ}^  comes  origi- 
nally from  the  sun.  As  the  grass  and  all  other  plants  grow 
they  use  up  this  energy  as  it  comes  from  the  sun  in  the  form  of 
heat,  light  and  other  rays.  It  is  appropriated  by  means  of 
the  green  called  chloraphyll.  Thus  a  plant  cannot  grow  unless 
it  is  green  and  it  cannot  grow  unless  the  sun  shines.  Of  course, 
plants  can  grow  for  a  short  time  on  the  food  stored  in  the 
seed  or  in  the  tuber.  But  in  order  to  store  food  for  man  or 
animals,  plants  must  be  green  and  they  must  have  sunlight. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  plants  live  to  make  food  for  animals 
and  the  animal  can  live  because  the  plant  made  food  for  it. 
The  two  together  make  a  complete  cycle.  The  plant  takes 
the  elements  and  simple  compounds  and  by  means  of  the 
energy  coming  from  the  sun  builds  these  up  into  higher  or 
more  complex  compounds,  so  to  speak,  bottling  up  the  energy 
from  the  sun.  The  animal  then  takes  this  bottled-up  energy 
in  the  form  of  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  and  lets  it  out. 
It  uses  the  energy  and  gives  the  elements  and  simple  com- 
pounds back  to  nature  so  that  they  can  be  used  over  again. 

Why  is  a  desert  so  very  hot  in  the  summertime?     And  why 


72  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

is  a  plowed  field  after  it  has  become  dry  on  the  surface  hotter 
than  an  adjoining  field  covered  with  green  grass?  Simply 
because  the  grass  is  taking  the  heat  and  other  energy  as  it 
comes  from  the  sun  and  bottling  it  up;  storing  it  in  the  form 
of  nutrients.  In  this  form  it  is  not  preceptible  until  the 
material  such  as  the  plants  themselves  or  their  seeds  decay 
or  are  burned  or  metabolized. 

The  heat  from  the  sun  falling  upon  the  plowed  field  or 
desert  is  not  thus  stored  away  and  simply  makes  the  surface 
of  the  earth  and  the  air  next  to  it  that  much  hotter. 

Carbohydrate  Feeds. — All  natural  feeds  contain  more  or 
less  of  carbohydrate  material.  But  those,  as  shown  previously, 
which  are  rich  in  protein  are  called  protein  feeds.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  that  are  not  rich  in  protein  are  called  carbo- 
hydrate feeds. 

The  principal  carbohydrate  feeds  are  corn,  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  caffir  corn,  speltz,  rice,  middlings, 
corn  stover  or  silage,  timothy,  prairie  or  meadow  hay,  straw, 
etc.  The  rule  to  be  followed  in  using  these  feeds  in  feeding 
animals  on  a  farm  is  first  to  make  as  much  use  of  the  coarse 
feeds  or  roughages  as  is  possible  because  these  are  the  cheaper 
feeds.  These  feeds,  however,  should  not  be  used  exclusively. 
They  are  coarse  and  bulky,  occupying  considerable  space,  and 
on  account  of  their  woody  nature  are  hard  to  digest.  This 
requires  considerable  energy;  consequently  the  animals  fed 
largely  upon  roughages  cannot  do  well.  This  is  true  because 
in  the  first  place  they  cannot  eat  as  much,  and  second,  a  large 
part  of  their  feed  goes  to  digest  what  they  eat.  Some  persons 
say  that  the  more  an  animal  eats  of  certain  coarse  feeds  under 
certain  conditions,  as  for  instance  wheat  or  rye  straw  fed  in 
summer,  the  worse  off  it  is.  This  is  true  because  it  requires 
more  energy  to  digest  and  metabolize  or  use  the  material  than 
they  get  out  of  it.  Still,  farmers  generally  know  that  at  least 
in  winter  some  animals  can  be  maintained  upon  such  straws. 

The  things  to  bear  in  mind  with  these  carbohydrates  is  to 
feed  the  animals  enough  roughages  and  concentrates  to  get  the 
desired  results.  If  the  animals  are  to  be  fattened  they  should 
have  as  much  as  they  can  make  use  of  to  good  advantage.  If 
they  are  simply  to  be  maintained  they  should  be  fed  enough 
to  keep  up  the  desired  amount  of  flesh. 


FEEDS  FOR  ANIMALS  73 

FAT  IN  A  RATION 

Fat  serves  the  same  purposes  as  do  carbohydrates.  It  con- 
tributes to  the  production  of  energy,  heat,  and  fat.  It  might 
properly  be  asked,  then,  why  feeds  should  contain  fat  and  why 
animals  should  have  fat  in  their  rations. 

Fat  exists  in  several  forms  and  has  several  distinct  character- 
istics. Oil  is  used  in  the  bearings  of  machinery  to  keep  them 
from  wearing  out.  It  prevents  friction.  As  grease,  it  is 
used  to  prevent  a  wagon's  axles  from  wearing  out,  and  to  pre- 
vent unnecessary  noise.  Different  fats  have  different  melting 
points.  That  is,  it  takes  more  heat  to  melt  one  than  another. 
The  fat  from  a  beef  animal  or  a  sheep  is  called  tallow  and  it  is 
a  solid  under  all  ordinary  temperatures.  However,  tallow 
can  very  easily  be  melted  or  made  into  a  liquid  by  setting  it  on  a 
hot  stove  in  a  dish.  The  fat  from  a  hog  is  called  lard.  This  is 
solid  under  ordinary  room  temperatures  but  may  become  liquid 
on  a  hot  summer  day.  It  takes  less  heat  to  melt  lard  than  it 
does  to  melt  tallow.  Consequently,  tallow  is  said  to  be  harder 
than  lard.  It  is  also  said  to  have  a  higher  melting  point. 
Oil  is  a  fat  that  is  liquid  under  ordinary  temperatures.  The 
fat  of  corn  is  called  corn  oil.  The  fat  of  flax  is  called  linseed 
oil.  And  the  fat  of  cotton  seed  is  called  cotton  seed  oil. 
Thus  all  plants  and  animals  have  a  characteristic  fat.  The 
cow  and  the  pig  may  eat  the  same  feed  and  the  one  will 
make  tallow  while  the  other  will  make  lard.  This  is  done  by 
the  metabolism  of  the  animal  body.  If  the  mechanical 
machine  like  the  binder,  the  mower  of  the  threshing  machine 
needs  fat  in  the  form  of  oil  to  keep  the  machine  in  better  order 
and  keep  it  from  wearing  out,  may  it  not  also  be  assumed  that 
the  animal  machine  needs  fat  to  keep  it  in  order?  At  any 
rate,  it  must  be  assumed  that  as  the  all-wise  Creator  implanted 
the  need  of  fat  in  animals  it  must  be  given  to  them  in  their 
feeds.  The  fat  is  needed  to  keep  the  animal  body  in  order  as 
well  as  to  supply  energy,  heat,  etc.  And  does  it  not  have  a 
lubricating  purpose  in  the  animal  machine  the  same  as  it  has 
in  the  mechanical  machine? 

Fat  as  a  Laxative. — When  an  animal  becomes  constipated, 
which  means  simply  that  the  bowels  do  not  move  freely 
enough,  oil  is  given  as  a  laxative.     This  facilitates  the  move- 


74  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

ment  of  food  and  waste  through  the  digestive  tract.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  only  principle  upon  which  a  laxative 
works.  The  aninial  body  is  built  like  a  compound  machine. 
It  is  made  to  handle  a  certain  amount  of  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, fat,  mineral  matter  and  also  water.  When  it  is  fed  the 
amounts  of  each  of  these  substances  that  it  can  handle  to  the 
best  advantage  it  is  said  to  have  a  balanced  ration.  The 
amounts  range,  in  order  of  quantity,  as  follows:  water, 
carbohydrate,  protein,  fat,  and  mineral  matter.  Now  then,  if 
the  machine  is  fed  more  of  anyone  of  these  substances  than  it 
can  make  use  of,  the  material  must  be  thrown  off.  It  is  waste 
matter  and  must  be  expelled  from  the  body.  Thus  it  is  that 
if  one  wants  to  cause  a  movement  of  the  bowels  a  dose  of  salts 
or  oil  is  used.  That  simply  means  that  more  of  these  sub- 
stances is  introduced  into  the  machine  (digestion  and  metabo- 
lism) than  can  be  taken  care  of  and  the  material  is  dis- 
charged. On  the  same  principle,  an  overdose  of  protein  will 
bring  on  scours. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  among  farmers  that  when  the  car- 
cass of  an  animal  is  left  in  the  hog  lot  for  the  hogs  to  consume 
at  will,  it  will  cause  the  hogs  to  scour.  This  is  caused  by  an 
oversupply  of  protein  in  the  lean  meat.  The  scouring  may 
also  be  caused  by  the  fat  in  the  carcass.  While  these  sub- 
stances are  good  feeds  if  properly  used  they  become  harmful 
if  improperly  used. 

Use  of  Fat. — It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  children  do  not 
like  fat  as  well  as  grown-up  people.  That  is,  young  folks 
cannot  use  as  large  a  proportion  of  fat  in  their  feed  as  can 
grown-ups.  This  is  true  because  growing  children  need  more 
protein  while  grown-ups,  having  ceased  to  grow,  do  not  need 
so  much  protein  and  can  make  use  of  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
energy-,  heat-  and  fat-forming  substances  such  as  fat  and 
carbohydrate.  It  is  also  known  that  the  natural  and  best  feed 
for  all  young  animals,  including  children,  is  milk  which  is  a 
protein  feed.     It  is  also  rich  in  fat. 

One  of  the  important  considerations  in  the  feeding  of 
calves  appears  here.  When  a  change  is  made  from  whole 
milk  to  skim  milk  the  fat  content  of  the  ration  is  reduced. 
Good   feeding  requires  that  when  the  butterfat  is  taken  out 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  75 

of  milk  on  account  of  its  high  pricc^,  some  other  material 
containing  fat  must  be  substituted. 

Concentration  of  Fat. — One  of  the  principal  characteristics 
of  fat  as  a  feed  is  its  concentration.  A  given  amount  of  fat 
will  yield  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  much  energy  or  heat  or 
allow  the  animal  to  make  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  much 
fat  on  its  body  as  an  equal  amount  of  carbohydrate.  Thus 
when  an  animal  is  on  a  fasting  diet,  which  means  that  it  isn't 
being  fed  anything,  it  is  using  the  fat  from  the  body  to  yield 
energy  and  heat,  and  a  small  quantity  goes  a  long  way.  So 
also  a  man  who  is  putting  in  long  hours  at  hard  labor  can  get 
along  better  by  eating  considerable  fat.  In  this  way  he  can 
carry  with  him,  in  his  stomach,  a  larger  supply  of  energy  and 
can  work  longer  without  getting  hungry  or  tired. 

The  poor  people  in  various  sections  of  the  world,  as,  for 
example,  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  or  parts  of 
continental  Europe,  who  are  too  poor  to  buy  the  high-priced 
lean  meat,  buy  the  cheaper  fat  meat.  A  pound  of  fat  pork 
can  be  bought  for  less  money  than  a  pound  of  lean  meat  and 
it  is  worth  as  much  as  two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  the  latter 
on  an  equal  basis  of  dry  matter  for  heat,  fat  and  energy 
production.  But  lean,  meat  always  contains  much  more 
water  than  fat  meat.  Thus  the  poor  man  who  buys  fat  meat 
gets  three  or  four  times  as  much  for  his  money  as  the  more 
wealthy  individual  who  buys  lean  meat. 

In  feeding  farm  animals  the  fat  part  of  the  ration  is  too 
frequentlj^  overlooked.  While  in  the  ordinary  feeding  tables 
there  is  no  separate  classification  of  fat  feeds,  there  are  some 
of  the  protein  as  well  as  carbohydrate  feeds  that  are  rich  in 
fat.  By  a  proper  selection  of  feeds,  therefore,  this  part  of 
the  ration  can  be  pretty  well  controlled. 

Fat  Feeds. — The  natural  farm  feeds  rich  in  fat  are  flax, 
so}^  beans,  whole  milk,  corn  and  oats.  The  first  two  are  espe- 
cially valuable  from  this  standpoint.  They  are  also  protein 
feeds.  These  two  feeds  should  be  used  in  limited  quantities 
on  account  of  their  protein  content  as  well  as  their  fat  content. 
The  former  is  more  harmful  than  the  latter  when  fed  in  excess. 
When  too  much  fat  is  fed  the  material  simply  passes  out  in 
the  form  of  scours.     This,  as  everyone  knows,  is  harmful. 


70  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

An  interesting  point  in  connection  with  fat  as  a  feed  for 
animals  is  the  fact  that  a  farmer  can  grow  much  more  wheat, 
oats  or  barley  per  acre  than  he  can  of  flax. 

As  shown  previously,  when  a  plant  grows  it  requires  energy 
from  the  sun  in  the  form  of  heat,  light,  and  other  rays.  As 
also  shown  previously,  fat  is  a  much  more  concentrated  sub- 
stance than  protein  or  carbohj^drates.  An  acre  of  soil  gets 
just  so  much  energy  from  the  sun  and  no  more.  Flax,  there- 
fore, which  is  very  much  richer  in  fat  than  the  other  feeds 
mentioned  cannot  produce  as  many  bushels  per  acre  as  these 
other  crops  which  contain  less  fat  and  more  carbohydrates 
and  protein. 

MINERAL  MATTER 

Mineral  matter  is  material  like  salt,  lime,  ashes,  iron,  soil 
particles,  etc.  When  plants  grow  they  take  up  some  of  the 
chemical  elements  which  are  in  the  soil.  These  are  used  by 
the  plants  in  doing  their  work  and  are  then  deposited  in  the 
cells  and  tissues  of  the  plant. 

Animals  also  need  mineral  substances.  But  animals  have 
greater  need  of  these  mineral  substances  than  have  plants. 
They  need  these  materials  not  only  for  the  digestion,  absorp- 
tion, resorbtion,  etc.,  but  they  need  them  also  for  bone 
construction. 

While  the  mineral  substances,  and  there  are  a  number  of 
them,  compose  the  smallest  part  of  the  ration,  they  are,  at  the 
same  time,  among  the  most  important  parts.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  one  of  the  substances,  water,  carbohydrate,  protein, 
fat  or  mineral  matter  is  more  important  than  any  other  be 
cause  they  are  all  needed.  The  animal  cannot  do  well  unless 
they  are  all  present  in  sufficient  amount.  In  fact,  the  animal 
machine  would  refuse  to  work  altogether,  if  any  one  of  them 
were  left  out. 

Animals  can  get  along  without  mineral  matter  in  their  daily 
feed  for  from  one  to  six  months,  but  during  this  time  they  are 
using  substances  of  this  kind  previously  stored  in  the  body. 
They,  therefore,  grow  constantly  weaker.  They  get  weaker 
in  bone  and  weaker  generally  and  if  the  mineral  substances 
are    not    supplied    they    will    become    ill    and    die.      Many 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  77 

animals  on  farms  die  and  their  owners  do  not  know  the  cause, 
because  the  minerals  are  such  a  small  part  of  the  ration  they 
are  sometimes  forgotten.  While  all  natural  feeds  contain 
some  of  this  material  they  usually  do  not  contain  enough. 

Salt  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  minerals  needed. 
One  of  the  best  ways  to  feed  salt  is  to  keep  it  before  the 
animals  in  a  trough  or  box  where  they  can  get  it  at  all  times. 
If  the}^  have  not  had  salt  for  a  time  care  should  be  exercised 
not  to  give  them  too  much  at  a  time  till  they  get  used  to  it. 
If  they  eat  more  than  a  limited  amount  it  will,  as  already 
said,  cause  scours.  In  the  case  of  pigs  it  will  also  cause  death. 
Other  mineral  substances  that  can  frequently  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage are  ground  limestone,  or  air-slaked  lime,  bone  meal, 
hardwood  ashes,  and  charcoal.  These  can  be  fed  in  the  same 
manner  as  salt. 

Animals  can  get  along  for  several  weeks  without  protein  or 
carbohydrates.  But  during  such  time  they  use  the  protein 
tissue,  muscle,  glands,  etc.,  and  the  fat  tissue  from  their 
bodies.  They  can  perhaps  also  get  along  without  fat  in  the 
ration  for  a  long  time  because  the  carbohydrates  will  in  part 
take  the  place  of  fat.  But  no  animal,  except  the  camel, 
can  get  along  more  than  a  few  days  without  water.  Most 
animals  have  very  small  storage  capacity  for  water  and  a  great 
deal  is  needed. 

From  all  of  this  it  can  readily  be  seen  why  it  is  so  much 
more  difficult  to  feed  babies  and  young  animals  than  older 
animals.  The  very  3^oung  animals  have  not  yet  had  time  to 
provide  stores  of  the  materials  named  for  possible  emergencies. 

WATER 

Water  makes  up  the  largest  part  of  the  ration  for  most  farm 
animals.  It  is  used  to  soften  the  feeds  eaten  so  they  can  be 
more  easily  masticated  and  swallowed,  to  assist  in  digestion, 
to  carr}'  on  the  work  of  transportation,  to  enter  into  the  tissue 
as  a  part  of  the  structure  and  to  help  regulate  body  temperature. 

As  a  Solvent. — Digestion,  as  already  shown  is  a  process  of 
solution.  If  sugar  is  put  into  a  glass  of  water  it  is  dissolved. 
So,  also,  is  it  dissolved  in  the  stomach.  To  be  sure,  there  are 
various  digestive  agents  in  the  body,  such  as  saliva,  gastric 


78  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FAKM 

juice,  etc.  These,  as  well  as  water,  take  part  in  digestion,  but 
these  alone,  without  water,  will  not  digest  the  feeds. 

The  digested  feeds  go  out  from  the  digestive  tract  into  the 
blood  vessels.  Here,  by  means  of  the  blood,  these  materials 
or  digested  food  particles  are  carried  to  their  destination. 
Some  of  the  material  goes  to  the  cells  direct  to  be  used  while 
the  rest  of  it  is  taken  to  places  of  storage  to  be  used  between 
meals. 

As  a  rule,  a  meal  is  digested  in  about  two  hours.  During 
this  time  the  cells  can  be  supplied  direct.  But  at  the  same 
time  the  balance  of  the  meal  which  is  sufficient  to  last  till  the 
next  period  of  intake,  is  stored.  The  liver  is  one  of  these 
storage  places. 

When  to  Drink. — The  transportation  work,  or  the  carry- 
ing of  the  digested  food  particles,  is  done  by  means  of  the 
blood  stream.  The  blood  is  largely  water  and  is  forced  through 
the  tubes  or  blood  vessels  by  means  of  a  force  pump,  the  heart. 
The  work  of  the  heart  is  heavier  at,  and  soon  after,  mealtime 
than  at  any  oth.er  time  of  the  day.  From  this  it  is  clearly 
evident  that  water  has  its  greatest  use  in  the  body  at  and 
soon  after  mealtime.  Experimental  evidence  by  competent 
authority,  also  shows  that  best  results  are  possible  when  con- 
siderable water  is  consumed  at  mealtime.  In  fact,  with 
many  farm  animals  and  with  some  men,  all  of  the  day's  sup- 
ph^  of  water  is  consumed  at  mealtime.  This  is  considered 
by  the  author  to  be  the  best  time  to  drink  water. 

The  food,  however,  should  not  be  washed  down  by  means  of 
the  water.  But  the  water  should  be  taken  at  intervals  during 
the  meal  as  well  as  immediately  before  and  after  the  meal. 
At  times  also,  especially  after  big  meals,  it  is  advisable  to 
allow  another  drink  an  hour  or  two  after  eating.  When  water 
is  introduced  into  the  stomach  it  sets  the  whole  machinery  of 
digestion  in  motion.  This  then  will  complete  the  digestion 
of  the  meal  and  allow  the  stomach  to  have  a  rest  before  the 
next  meal. 

From  the  foregoing  can  be  seen  what  happens  when  water  is 
taken  between  meals.  The  digestive  system  will  not  get  the 
necessary  i-cst.  The  stomach  needs  rest  as  well  as  any  other 
organ  of  the  body.     A  man  spends  about  one-third  of  his  life 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  79 

in  bed  and  rests  considerably  during  the  other  two-thirds. 
Even  the  heart  takes  a  rest  after  every  beat.  So  also  the 
stomach  or  rather  the  digestive  system  as  a  whole  needs  a  rest 
after  digesting  a  meal. 

It  is  a  custom  of  many  workmen  to  take  a  drink  about  every 
half  hour  during  the  day.  This  is  a  bad  practice  because  it 
keeps  the  digestive  system  in  a  constant  state  of  work  and 
uses  up  or  rather  throws  out  into  the  digestive  tract  and 
wastes  the  digestive  enzymes.  These  are  the  active  prin- 
ciples in  the  digestive  juices  that  aid  in  digestion.  Then  when 
the  next  meal  is  eaten  there  is  neither  the  necessary  energy 
nor  enzymes  to  digest  it.  People  who  thus  misuse  themselves 
frequently  use  their  horses  with  more  consideration  than  they 
do  themselves.  Their  horses  are  watered  only  at  mealtimes 
when  they  should  be  watered. 

Water  is  very  often  erroneously  taken  on  a  hot  day  between 
meals.  It  is  taken  for  its  cooling  effects  w^hich  is  not  a  good 
polic}^  The  advice  frequently  given,  to  take  a  little  oatmeal 
with  water  between  meals,  is  good  advice.  So  also  is  the  habit 
of  eating  a  lunch  when  one  takes  a  drink  between  meals. 
This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  a  good  thing  to  eat  and  drink 
between  the  regular  meals.  People  very  often  eat  too  much. 
But  when  a  drink  is  taken  it  starts  the  flow  of  digestive  juices 
and  if  some  food  is  taken  at  the  same  time  these  are  not  wasted 
but  used.  It  is  expended  upon  the  food  and  this  is  appro- 
priated. Under  such  conditions  less  need  be  eaten  at  the  next 
mealtime.  But,  of  course,  it  is  better  to  give  the  stomach  a 
rest  between  meals.  From  this  it  is  also  seen  that  one  large 
drink  is  better  than  several  small  ones.  A  drink  is  a  drink 
in  starting  the  digestive  machinery,  and  a  small  one  is  as  bad 
as  a  large  one. 

Transportation. — The  transportation  or  circulatory  system 
of  the  body  is  built  on  the  same  plan  as  a  city  water  supply 
system  or  as  Mr.  Rockefeller's  pipe  line  system  for  carrjnng 
oils  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another.  It  is  the  most 
economical  system  of  transportation. 

Besides  carrying  the  digested  food  particles  out  to  the  cells 
where  they  are  used  the  circulatory  system  also  brings  back 
the  waste  products  of  metabolism  to  the  points  of  excretion. 


80  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

In  this  sense  the  circulatory  system  is  similar  to  a  stove  pipe 
and  chimney  which  take  the  smoke  and  gas  from  the  stove  or 
furnace  out  to  the  exterior.  The  blood  carries  both  solid  and 
gaseous  waste  products  from  the  cell.  The  gaseous  product 
or  carbon  dioxide  is  brought  to  the  lungs  and  there  expelled 
with  the  same  air  which  brings  in  the  oxygen. 

The  solid  waste  products  such  as  urea  are  taken  by  the 
blood  from  the  cell  to  the  kidneys.  These  act  as  a  sieve  and 
strain  out  these  substances  and  then  dissolve  them  in  some 
water.  This  solution  is  sent  down  to  the  bladder  where  it  is 
stored  for  periodic  expulsion  as  urine.  This  is  done  by  means 
of  contraction  of  the  muscles  around  the  body  and  the  relaxa- 
tion of  the  muscle  about  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  If  this  blad- 
der muscle  fails  to  work  or  becomes  exhausted  the  animal  will 
drip  urine  constantly. 

Body  Temperature. — Water  is  also  used  for  regulating  body 
temperature.  When  the  work  is  hard  or  when  the  weather  is 
hot  an  animal  perspires  or  sweats.  When  the  animal  works 
there  is  considerable  energy  expended  within  the  body  and 
this  results  in  heat.  On  a  hot  day  also  there  is  a  surplus  of 
heat  in  the  body.  All  this  must  be  taken  out  so  that  the  body 
or  rather  the  protoplasm  in  the  cells  may  not  be  cooked. 
The  difference  between  a  normal  cell  and  an  overheated  cell 
is  much  the  same  as  that  between  a  raw  egg  and  a  boiled  egg. 
Overheated  cells  mean  death  to  an  animal.  They  are  a 
source  of  danger,  also,  in  case  of  a  high  fever. 

The  animal  body  maintains  practically  a  constant  tem- 
perature. Then  when  it  has  more  heat  than  it  can  get  rid 
of  by  other  means  it  sends  water  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of 
perspiration  or  sweat  to  be  evaporated  on  the  surface.  This 
takes  up  a  great  deal  of  heat  and  helps  to  keep  the  body  tem- 
perature at  the  right  point. 

AIR  OR  OXYGEN 

Nothing  has  thus  far  been  said  of  air  which  furnishes  the 
oxygen  needed  by  the  body.  Air  is  not  usually  considered  a 
food  and  it  is  not  a  drink. 

How  long  can  an  animal  live  without  food  or  water?     Sev- 


FEEDS    von    ANIMALS  81 

vn\\  weeks  witliout  food  and  several  days  without  water. 
But  how  long;  ran  it  live  without  oxygen?  Only  for  a  few 
minutes.  It  is  assumed,  however,  that  the  animal  will  take 
care  of  this  part  of  its  nourishment  itself  by  means  of  its  power 
of  respiration.  But  how  about  the  animal  that  is  bred  with 
a  small  lung  capacity  or  is  weak  in  constitution?  Breeding- 
counts,  then,  in  providing  an  oxygen  supply. 

Animals  are  sometimes  kept  in  places  and  under  conditions 
which  prevent  their  getting  a  normal  supply  of  oxygen.  If 
the  ventilation  is  poor,  if  too  many  animals  are  kept  in  a  given 
space,  if  animals  pile  up  so  as  to  prevent  proper  breathing,  if 
they  eat  too  much  and  check  respiration,  if  they  become 
l)loated  so  that  the  diaphragm  presses  against  the  lungs,  a 
lack  of  oxygen  may  result,  and  animals  may  suffer. 

Exercise. — The  most  important  feature  of  exercise,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  author  is  in  the  influence  upon  respiration. 
By  exercise  the  organs  of  respiration  are  developed  and  more 
oxygen  is  taken  in.  Thus  the  value  of  a  pasture,  with  some 
animals  at  least,  is  more  to  furnish  oxygen  than  to  furnish 
feed. 

Fire. — Oxygen  is  as  important  to  the  animal  body  as  it  is 
to  fire.  If  a  piece  of  cardboard  is  laid  on  top  of  a  smooth 
topped  lamp  chimney  the  light  goes  out  at  once.  The  draft 
is  stopped  and  no  oxygen  comes  in  to  support  the  flame. 
There  can  be  no  fire  without  oxj^gen.  Fire  can  be  kept  up  in 
a  stove  onl}^  as  long  as  there  is  oxygen  passing  into  the  stove 
and  coming  into  contact  with  the  fuel.  A  blast  furnace  de- 
velops heat  enough  to  melt  iron,  but  this  high  degree  of  heat 
is  caused  by  burning  coke,  which  is  almost  pure  carbon,  under 
forced  draft,  which  gives  a  large  quantity  of  oxygen. 

Metabolism. — The  foregoing  illustration  serves  to  show  the 
importance  of  oxygen  in  ordinary  combustion.  It  is  just  as 
important  in  metabolism  in  the  animal  body.  And  any 
lack  of  development  of  chest  capacity  or  any  environment 
which  hinders  the  abundant  intake  of  pure  air  is  a  serious 
menace  to  animals.  So,  on  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  pro- 
vides his  animals  by  breeding  and  environment  with  this  power 
and  ability  to  obtain  an  abundance  of  oxygen  has  a  lead  over 
his  fellow  farmers  who  pursue  a  different  course. 


82  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FEEDS 

All  feeds  are  good  in  their  place  but  at  the  same  time  all 
feeds  may  be  bad  when  improperly  used.  The  better  the 
feed  the  more  easily  it  may  be  misused. 

Feeds  may  be  misused  by  feeding  too  much  roughage  to 
animals  primarily  adapted  to  concentrates,  by  feeding  too 
much  concentrate  to  ruminants,  or  by  feeding  too  much  or 
too  little  protein  or  of  the  other  nutrients  including  mineral 
matter  and  water. 

The  different  classes  of  feeds  are  roughages,  concentrates, 
green  feeds,  dry  feeds,  and  liquid  feeds.  The  differences 
indicated  by  this  classification  are  physical  and  do  not  take 
into  consideration  the  chemical  differences  given  previously, 
namely,  protein,  carbohydrate,  fat,  and  mineral  matter.  Each 
one  of  the  classes,  according  to  the  physical  characteristics 
contains  several  different  feeds  or  kinds  of  feeds  under  the 
chemical  classification. 

Roughages. — Roughages  are  feeds  like  corn  stover,  corn 
silage,  hay,  straw,  grass,  etc.  They  are  bulky  and  more  or 
less  difficult  of  digestion.  They  are  bulky  because  they  con- 
tain a  good  deal  of  undigestible  matter  or  water.  They  are 
hard  to  digest  because  they  contain  much  woody  substance 
called  crude  fiber. 

The  hays,  including  alfalfa,  the  clovers,  vetches,  peas, 
beans,  etc.,  are  protein  roughages.  They  should  be  used  as 
largely  as  possible  to  furnish  protein  which,  as  shown  pre- 
viously, is  the  material  needed  for  growth.  Protein  is  the 
most  expensive  part  of  a  ration  and  can  be  furnished  most 
economically  in  the  form  of  roughages  grown  on  the  farm. 
These  feeds,  or  some  of  them,  should  be  used  with  all  young 
and  growing  animals  such  as  colts,  calves,  lambs,  and  pigs. 
They  should  also  be  used  as  a  large  part  of  the  roughage  in 
rations  for  cattle,  especially  dairy  cattle,  and  also  for  sheep. 
Wheat  bran  as  a  commercial  feed  is  also  a  protein  roughage. 

Concentrates. — The  grains  and  seeds  are  classed  as  concen- 
trates or  concentrate  feeds.  They  are  feeds  that  are  largely 
digestible  and  do  not  contain  large  quantities  of  water.  They 
are  the  expensive  feeds  of  the  farm  but  must  be  fed  to  animals 


FEED.S    FOli    ANIMALS  83 

in  addition  to  the  roughages  to  make  them  do  well.  These 
feeds  do  not  occupy  very  much  space  for  the  amount  of  nourish- 
ment they  furnish  to  the  animal,  and  therefore  are  called 
concentrates. 

The  protein  concentrates  from  the  standpoint  of  home-grown 
feeds  are  flax,  peas,  beans  and  milk.  The  latter,  however,  on 
account  of  the  large  quantity  of  water  it  contains  is  not  always 
a  concentrate.  The  principle  commercial  protein  concentrates 
are  oil  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  tankage,  meat  meal,  gluten 
meal,  etc. 

Green  Feeds. — Green  feeds  are  sometimes  also  called  succu- 
lent feeds.  Such  feeds  are  nature's  production.  They  are 
the  legumes,  grasses,  corn,  weeds,  roots,  potatoes,  etc.  Since 
these  are  nature's  feeds  they  are  best  adapted  to  all-purpose 
feeding.  There  is  nothing  better  than  a  good  pasture  contain- 
ing a  variety  of  plants  which  the  stock  will  consume. 

The  question  might  be  asked  here,  why  do  farmers  feed 
grain  to  their  livestock  while  they  are  on  pasture?  While 
good  pasture  is  the  natural  feed,  good  livestock  is  not  a  purely 
natural  product.  Man  has  taken  a  hand  in  the  development 
of  the  farm  animal.  He  has  lived  up  to  his  God-given  com- 
mand and  has  exercised  dominion  over  the  animals.  These 
have  been  improved  so  that  they  cannot  do  their  best  on 
pasture  alone.  They  are  no  longer  wild  animals  in  nature 
like  the  wild  horse,  the  buffalo,  and  the  razor-back  hog. 

The  digestive  capacity  of  the  improved  farm  animal  is  not 
large  enough  and  the  power  of  digestion  is  not  great  enough 
for  it  to  get  enough  for  good  and  profitable  production  out 
of  roughage  feeds  alone.  This  being  true,  the  feeds  for  our 
best  farm  livestock  for  their  best  work  must  include  the  grains 
or  concentrates  as  well  as  the  roughages. 

Green  feeds  are  valuable  for  several  reasons.  As  a  rule 
they  are  easily  digested,  contain  lots  of  water,  and  also  are 
rich  in  mineral  matter.  These  are  three  very  important 
factors  in  livestock  husbandry. 

The  green  protein  feeds  that  should  be  used  for  young  and 
growing  animals  are  alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  beans;  while  young 
rye  and  rape  are  also  quite  good  in  this  respect.  Timothy, 
bluegrass,  meadow  grass,  sorghum,  and  corn  contain  more  of 


84  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

the  carbohydrates.     They  are  good  for  mature  and  working 
animals.     Also  good  as  part  of  a  ration  for  growing  animals. 

Dry  Feeds. — Dry  feeds  are  the  green  feeds  with  the  moisture 
removed.  The  water  is  driven  off  by  evaporation.  All  of 
the  nutrients  remain.  During  the  process  some  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate material  may  change  to  more  woody-like  substance. 
This  makes  the  dry  feed  shghtly  less  digestible  than  the  green 
feed  from  which  it  is  made.  This,  however,  is  not  a  big  factor 
when  the  hay  is  made  in  time. 

Liquid  Feeds. — Skim  milk  is  a  protein  liquid  feed  and  whey 
is  a  carbohydrate  liquid  feed.  The  latter  is  the  by-product  of 
cheese-making.  From  this  most  of  the  protein  in  the  form  of 
casein  has  been  taken  out  in  making  the  cheese .  The  dry  matter 
of  skim  milk  is  largely  protein,  the  fat  having  been  taken  out. 

Artificially  prepared  liquid  feeds  such  as  slop  for  pigs  or 
soup  for  man  may  be  made  either  protein  or  carbohydrate  as 
the  one  in  charge  desires. 

Liquid  feeds  are  specially  valuable  for  the  amount  of  water 
they  contain.  As  shown  previously,  water  is  one  of  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  rations  of  all  animals.  It  is  generally 
assumed  that  the  appetite  of  an  animal  for  water  is  a  safe 
guide  as  to  the  water  requirement  of  the  animal,  or  the  amount 
of  water  needed  in  the  metabolism  of  the  animal  body.  This, 
however,  is  not  always  the  fact  in  the  case. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  in  the  winter  in  a  cold  climate 
many  animals  do  not  drink  water  enough.  The  cold  checks 
the  appetite  for  water  and  not  so  much  is  consumed  as  the 
best  working  of  the  internal  mechanism  demands.  This  being 
true,  liquid  feeds  such  as  slops  for  hogs  become  very  valuable. 
They  supply  the  required  amount  of  water.  Many  cases  can 
be  pointed  out  in  any  cold  country  where  the  difference  be- 
tween profit  and  loss  is  determined  by  this  point  in  feeding 
alone.  Many  persons  also  feed  slop  to  their  cows  and  bran 
mashes  to  the  horses.  The  animal  body,  with  too  little  water, 
is  like  a  wagon  running  without  enough  grease. 

OTHER  FACTORS   IN   FEEDING 

Variety. — As  seen  thus  far,  feeds  are  simply  an  aggregate  of 
nutrients  most  of  which  arc  digestible  but  some  of  which  are 


VKKDS     K()l{    ANIMALS  85 

not  digestible.  The  latter  pass  out  of  the  digestive  tract  in 
the  form  of  feces. 

Other  nutritional  properties  of  different  feeds  play  an  im- 
portant part.  Investigators  have  shown  that  some  animals 
will  do  well  on  certain  feeds  and  not  on  others,  even  if  they 
are  given  the  same  amounts  of  the  different  nutrients. 

As,  according  to  the  Bible,  man  lives  not  by  bread  alone, 
so  animals  do  not  like  to  live  upon  a  single  feed.  A  variety 
of  feeds  made  up  into  a  ration  is  more  appetizing.  Such  a 
ration  is  also  more  likely  to  furnish  the  minor  substances, 
such  as  the  amino  acids  and  other  peculiar  substances  which 
are  not  classed  as  nutrients  and  are  not  always  recognized  but 
which  are  an  important  factor  in  animal  nutrition.  There- 
fore, variety  in  a  ration  should  not  be  forgotten. 

Winter  Feeding. — As  is  generally  recognized,  farm  ani- 
mals are  handled  with  less  trouble  and  expense  in  summer 
than  in  winter.  They  also  do  better  in  summer.  Since  the 
winter  temperature  is  so  much  lower  than  the  animal  body  it  is 
more  difficult  to  maintain  the  normal  body  temperature  which 
is  about  100  degrees  Fahrenheit.  To  assist  an  animal  in  main- 
taining this  temperature  it  is  usually  put  into  some  kind  of  a 
barn  or  shed.  Different  animals  and  also  animals  for  different 
purposes  require  different  kinds  of  shelter. 

The  dairy  cow  loses  considerable  heat  each  day  in  the  form 
of  warm  milk.  This  milk  is  taken  from  her  at  the  body's 
temperature.  The  water  and  feed  entering  into  this  milk  as 
a  rule  must  be  brought  up  to  the  body  temperature.  This 
requires  an  enormous  amount  of  heat.  It  takes  more  heat  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  given  amount  of  water  to  a  certain 
degree  than  it  does  to  heat  the  same  weight  in  iron  to  an  eqjual 
degree.  From  this  it  is  evident  why  dairy  cows  need  better 
barns  than  beef  cattle. 

In  the  summer  time  animals  on  pasture  or  at  large  have  the 
opportunity  to  gather  various  kinds  of  legumes,  grasses,  weeds, 
water  and  minerals.  These  furnish  variety  which  is  so  im- 
portant. They  also  furnish  protein  and  the  different  mineral 
substances  all  of  which  are  very  important  to  the  well-being 
of  the  animal.  This  factor  is  largely  wanting  in  winter 
unless  it  is  artificially  provided.     In  winter,  also,  the  animals 


86  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

do  not  of  themselves  drink  as  much  water  as  in  summer,  and 
this  also  becomes  a  serious  handicap.  If,  however,  these 
factors  are  provided  for,  animals  can  be  made  to  do  as  well  in 
winter  as  in  summer.  To  be  sure,  it  will  cost  a  little  more  in  win- 
ter than  in  summer  but  a  man  cannot  handle  farm  animals  at  all 
if  he  does  not  have  them  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer. 

Palatability  of  a  Ration. — In  order  that  a  ration  may  do  an 
animal  the  most  good  it  must  not  only  be  a  combination  of 
good  feeds  but  it  must  also  be  palatable.  The  desire  of  an 
animal  for  something  from  without  to  supply  what  the  meta- 
bolism needs  in  the  form  of  dry  matter  is  called  appetite.  If 
there  is  a  call  from  within  for  water  it  is  called  thirst.  When 
there  is  a  demand  for  food  resulting  in  hunger,  which  is  simply 
a  call  for  some  necessary  substances  to  furnish  material  for 
energy,  heat,  growth  or  fat  production,  the  animal  is  said  to 
have  an  appetite.  The  call  is  from  the  cell  within  by  way  of 
the  nervous  system  to  the  organs  of  digestion  and  ingestion. 
The  important  part  of  this  phenomenon  is  that  when  an  ani- 
mal is  hungry  or  has  an  appetite  the  digestive  system  and 
everything  else  that  has  to  do  with  the  handling  of  this  feed  is 
ready  for  work.  If  the  feed  is  palatable  or  the  animal  likes 
it,  it  does  the  animal  the  most  good.  Palatability  is  secured 
by  regularity  of  feeding,  by  feeding  digestible  feeds,  by  not 
feeding  too  much.  Feeds  are  also  made  palatable  by  making 
proper  combinations  and  by  feeding  such  feeds  and  in  such 
forms  as  the  animal  likes. 

Changes  in  Ration. — One  feed  may  be  just  as  good  as  an- 
other or  one  may  be  better  than  another,  according  to  con- 
ditions. The  animal  body  is  subject  to  habit.  An  animal 
may  not  be  doing  as  well  as  it  should  and  a  change  in  the 
ration  or  environment  may  be  indicated.  The  new  ration 
may  be  much  better  than  the  old  one  but  if  the  change  is  not 
properly  made  it  will  for  a  time  be  harmful  rather  than  bene- 
ficial. If  the  change  is  properly  made  from  an  inferior  to  a 
superior  ration  the  improvement  is  at  once  perceptible.  The 
animal  must  be  one  that  is  in  good  condition  and  be  able  to 
respond  to  good  treatment.  A  run-down  animal  like  a  worn- 
out  automo])ile  will  not  work  right  no  matter  how  well  it  is 
treated. 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  87 

A  ration  should  be  changed  slowly  and  gradually.  A  sud- 
den change  may  upset  the  metabolism.  It  takes  time  for 
the  digestion  and  metabolism  to  become  accustomed  to  new 
feeds  and  to  different  combinations.  From  one  to  four  weeks 
should  be  allowed  to  make  a  change  in  a  ration.  Four  weeks 
is  better  than  one. 

Ear  corn  thrown  to  pigs  not  accustomed  to  it  will  be  left 
untouched  for  a  time  although  they  have  had  ground  corn  and 
other  similar  grains.  Pea  straw  was  at  first  left  untouched 
by  a  certain  band  of  sheep,  but  after  a  time  was  greatly  relished 
and  made  a  very  good  feed.  It  has  been  shown  experimentally 
that  it  takes  about  a  month  for  an  animal  to  make  the  best 
use  of  a  new  ration. 

In  spite  of  these  facts,  which  are  not  so  well  know^n  as  they 
should  be,  many  persons  provide  variety  in  the  ration  for  their 
animals  by  feeding  first  one  thing  and  then  something  else. 
This  is  especially  true  in  summer  when  the  stock  is  on  pasture. 
They  may  be  grazed  on  timothy,  bluegrass,  clover,  alfalfa, 
soy  beans,  rape,  etc.,  in  succession  for  periods  of  two  or  three 
weeks  each.  They  are  left  on  one  feed  almost  long  enough 
to  become  accustomed  to  it  and  then  they  are  changed  to  some- 
thing else.  Under  such  conditions  the  animal  machine  is 
alwa^^s  getting  ready  to  do  something  and  is  never  allowed  to 
get  clown  to  real  work.  How  would  a  farmer  get  along  who 
spent  all  his  time  in  sharpening  the  sickle  and  never  got  to 
cutting  his  crop? 

The  best  way  to  get  variety,  however,  is  to  provide  a  number 
of  feeds  and  feed  these  simultaneously  all  the  time.  These 
feeds  must  make  a  balanced  ration.  Then  there  will  be  no 
craving  for  something  else. 

Pasture.— A  good  pasture  is  always  made  up  of  a  variety 
of  plants,  including  both  the  legumes — clover  or  alfalfa — and 
the  grasses — bluegrass,  timothy,  orchard  grass.  A  pasture 
containing  nothing  but  legumes  will  furnish  too  much  protein 
for  mature  animals  and  one  containing  only  grasses  will  not 
have  enough  protein  for  young  and  growing  animals.  A 
permanent  pasture  as  a  rule  contains  a  variety  of  plants. 
This  not  only  furnishes  variety  and  a  balanced  ration  for  the 
animals  but  also  uses  the  large  variety  of  plant  foods  in  a  given 


88  LIVESTOCK   ON   THE    FARM 

soil.  The  soil  will  thus  yield  more  and  not  become  exhausted 
so  soon. 

Number  of  Feeds  per  Day. — It  was  shown  previously  that 
the  stomach  and  digestive  system  generalh'  need  a  rest  between 
meals.  The  question  then  arises  how  many  times  a  day  should 
an  animal  be  fed?  ]\Ian  eats  from  two  to  five  or  six  times  per 
day.  Most  people  feed  their  animals  two  or  three  times  a 
day  and  as  a  rule  such  feeding  is  good  practice,  but  young 
animals  should  be  fed  more  frequently. 

The  young  of  all  farm  animals  take  their  feed  quite  fre- 
quently from  their  mothers.  Suppose  a  young  animal  before 
weaning  gets  its  daily  ration  in  five  to  ten  portions,  and  im- 
mediately after  weaning  is  allowed  to  take  its  daily  feed  in 
only  three  equal  portions.  The  change  would  be  too  sudden. 
This  would  be  the  case,  also,  because  a  young  animal  cannot 
eat  as  much  at  a  time  as  a  grown  animal. 

Young  animals  have  feeds  that  are  more  easily  and  more 
quickly  digested  than  the  feeds  fed  to  the  older  ones.  The 
digestive  apparatus,  therefore,  gets  its  needed  rest  and  the 
animal  also  gets  the  nutrients  needed  for  rapid  and  economical 
growth  But  the  young  animal  is  not  able  to  store  up  as  much 
material  for  future  use.  It,  therefore,  must  be  fed  frequently. 
A  well-developed  and  well-fed  cow  can  live  six  months  without 
salt  because  it  uses  during  this  time  the  salt  that  was  stored  in 
the  body  from  previous  feeding.  The  calf  does  not  have  this 
store  of  material,  therefore  must  be  fed  more  often.  The  cow 
also  will  do  better  if  fed  more  regularly,  that  is  more  often  with 
respect  to  all  the  necessary  ingredients  of  a  balanced  ration. 

Many  mature  farm  animals  are  fed  successfully  twice  a 
day,  and  this  is  enough.  Some,  such  as  the  hard-working 
horse  or  dairy  cow  are  fed  three  times  a  day.  Young  animals 
should  be  fed  three  times  and  the  very  young  ones  five  times 
a  day.  Of  course,  there  are  always  allowances  to  be  made,  as 
when  they  have  pasture,  hay,  or  other  feeds  before  them 
at  all  times.  It  is  not  best  to  have  hay  before  the  animals 
all  the  time,  but  that  will  be  discussed  later. 

Grinding  Feeds. — Grinding  does  not  add  anything  of  value 
to  any  feed  as  far  as  the  feed  itself  is  concerned.  Sometimes 
people  buy  ground  alfalfa  and  because  it  costs  them  a  big  price 


FEEDS    FOR    ANIMALS  80 

they  use  it  as  a  concentrate  or  grain.  But  this  feed  contains 
just  as  much  crude  fiber  or  undigestible  material  whether  it  is 
ground  by  a  mill  at  great  expense  or  whether  it  is  ground  by  the 
animal  for  nothing.  Alfalfa  is  a  roughage  whether  it  is  ground 
by  either  process. 

The  nutritive  value  of  most  grains  is  not  changed  by  grind- 
ing. Sometimes,  however,  there  are  small  hard  seeds  and 
grains  which  cannot  be  masticated  very  well  by  the  animals. 
These  should  be  ground.  If  not  ground,  they  will  pass 
through  the  digestive  tract  without  being  assimilated.  Under 
such  conditions,  the  animal  gets  no  good  from  them.  At 
other  times,  the  animals'  teeth  are  so  poor  that  they  cannot 
do  a  good  job  of  grinding.  Under  such  conditions,  also,  the 
feeds  should  be  ground. 

The  value  of  grinding  feeds  would,  therefore,  be  doubtful, 
were  there  not  other  considerations  to  be  taken  into  account. 

By  grinding,  it  is  possible  frequently  to  make  a  ration 
more  palatable,  which,  as  shown  above,  is  an  important  factor. 
The  different  feeds  are  mixed.  This  not  only  makes  the  ration 
more  palatable,  but  gives  a  more  even  distribution  when 
animals  are  fed  in  groups  like  sheep,  beef  cattle,  stock  cattle, 
and  hogs.  This  is  especially  important  with  the  protein 
feeds.  It  is  very  harmful  to  feed  too  much  of  this  nutrient 
and  if  the  feeds  are  not  properly  mixed  so  as  to  dilute  the 
protein,  some  of  the  animals  in  the  group  may  get  too  much. 

Grinding  grain  also  makes  it  possible  to  feed  water.  If 
animals  do  not  drink  water  enough  in  winter,  if  the  grains  are 
ground  into  a  fine  meal  and  mixed  with  the  water  the  animals 
will  take  as  much  as  their  metabolism  needs  for  the  best 
working. 

Cooking  Feeds. — Cooking,  like  grinding,  does  not  add  any- 
thing of  value  to  a  feed.  Still,  there  are  some  who  say  that 
1  pound  of  cooked  feed  goes  as  far  with  them  in  feeding  their 
stock  as  2  pounds  of  uncooked  feed.  This,  however,  comes 
about  through  the  feeding  of  more  water,  more  protein,  a 
better  variety,  etc. 

The  American  experiment  stations  have  long  since  demon- 
strated that  cooked  feed  is  no  more  valuable  for  livestock 
feeding   than   uncooked   feed.     But   as   shown   above,   under 


90  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FAKM 

certain  conditions  it  may  prove,  by  means  of  external  factors, 
to  be  much  more  valuable.  These  factors,  however,  may  as 
a  rule  be  provided  by  proper  mixing. 

Cooking  will,  however,  destroy  disease  germs  as  in  milk  or 
weed  seeds  in  grain.  If  ground  grain,  especially  if  it  is  not 
ground  fine  enough,  is  cooked,  it  will  mix  better  with  water 
and  make  a  more  uniform  slop  and  thus  be  better.  But  with 
proper  grinding  (fine  grinding),  and  with  the  proper  mixture 
of  grains  and  water,  cooking  becomes  almost  a  valueless 
operation  and  the  added  expense  need  not  be  incurred  on  the 
average  farm. 

In  a  cold  country  in  winter,  water  should  frequently  be 
warmed  to  make  it  more  palatable  and  to  reduce  the  drain 
on  the  animal  heat  needed  to  warm  it  to  the  temperature  of 
the  body.  With  a  few  feeds,  also,  like  potatoes  and  pump- 
kins fed  to  hogs,  cooking  is  of  advantage.  These  are  carbo- 
hydrate feeds  adapted  to  fattening  animals.  Hogs,  however, 
do  not  need  very  much  water,  and  such  feeds  are  very  rich 
in  water.  By  cooking  them,  therefore,  some  of  this  water  is 
driven  off.  If  a  little  ground  feed  is  added  it  reduces  the 
water  content  still  more,  and  also  makes  a  better  variety. 
Cooking  such  feeds  will  also  make  the  starch  more  digestible. 

Soaking  Feeds. — Soaking  feeds  in  water  from  one  feeding 
time  to  the  next  or  even  longer  is  sometimes  advocated.  This 
practice  may  be  considered  in  much  the  same  light  as  cooking. 
It  adds  water  and  softens  the  grain  to  some  extent  but  under 
some  conditions  this  practice  becomes  decidedly  harmful. 

Soaked  grain  is  usually  fed  wet  or  in  the  form  of  a  slop. 
When  thus  fed  to  pigs  it  is  frequently  swallowed  whole.  A 
pig  may  not  masticate  its  slop  but  simply  gulp  it  down.  If 
the  soaked  grain  is  swallowed  whole  it  will  be  of* no  value  to 
the  animal.  It  goes  through  undigested.  If  grain  is  not 
ground  fine  enough,  soaking  may  help  out. 


CHAPTER  V 
ANIMAL  BREEDING 

The  breeding  of  farm  animals  is  a  subject  which  is  not  always 
given  enough  consideration,  especially  by  the  general  farmer. 
From  the  standpoint  of  th^  man  who  makes  a  business  of 
breeding  animals  which  are  for  sale  for  breeding  purposes,  it 
is  frequently  overemphasized.  The  breeder  is  likely  to  lay 
more  stress  upon  breeding  than  upon  feeding. 

Feeding  and  breeding  cannot  be  separated.  The  two  go 
hand  in  hand.  The  animal  breeder  must  feed  his  animals  and 
the  feeder  in  the  majority  of  cases  breeds  for  the  feed  yard. 

THE  MAN 

The  work  of  livestock  breeding,  perhaps,  depends  more 
upon  the  breeder  than  does  any  other  phase  of  agriculture. 
He  should  be  bred  for  and  developed  a  livestock  man.  Of 
course,  anyone  can  undertake  livestock  work  but  success  will 
depend  upon  the  character  of  the  man.  The  most  highly 
developed  breeder  has  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  laws  and 
principles  of  breeding,  coupled  with  observation  to  improve 
the  animals  and  types  with  which  he  is  working.  He  is  able 
to  supply  animals  for  breeding  purposes.  These  animals 
should  be  so  good  that  the  man  who  buys  them  for  use  in  his 
herd,  stud,  or  flock  for  producing  meat  or  work  animals  can 
improve  his^herd  from  the  meat  and  work  standpoints. 

The  livestock  farmer,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  able  to 
go  to  the  livestock  breeder  and  buy  a  sire  for  SlOO,  $1000  or 
$10,000  and  use  him  in  his  herd,  stud,  or  flock  and  make 
money  on  him.  For  example,  if  a  bull  is  bought  for  $500 
he  ought  to  make  enough  improvement  in  his  offspring,  for 
whichever  purpose  they  are  bred,  to  let  the  livestock  farmer 
who  bought  him  get  back  the  money  he  paid  for  him  and  then 
a  substantial  profit  besides,  during  the  natural  life  of  the  sire. 

91 


i)2  LIVKSTOCK    ON    TlIK    FARM 

If  tho  livestock  breeder  cannot  produce  and  sell  animals  like 
this  he  is  not  fulfilling  his  mission,  or  else  he  is  selling-  his  ani- 
mals at  too  high  a  price.  Thus  there  is  a  place,  and  a  good 
place,  for  both  the  Hvestock  breeder  and  the  livestock  farmer. 
The  part  that  one's  ability  as  a  judge  plays  in  successful 
livestock  breeding  is  nicely  brought  out  by  W.  E.  Spicer 
in  the  Breeders'  Gazette  of  Sept.  7,  1916.     He  says: 

*'To  be  a  judge  of  animals  is  not  only  the  first  but  it  is  also  the  most 
important  qualification  of  the  master  breeder  and  improver  of  livestock. 
1  care  not  what  other  quahfications  and  advantages  a  man  may  possess, 
if  he  is  lacking  in  this  one  respect,  he  is  a  failure  as  a  breeder,  so  far 
as  improvement  of  the  breed  is  concerned.  Every  other  quaUfication  is 
subordinate  to  this  one  faculty.  To  judge  is  like  a  chord,  a  prelude  to  a 
masterpiece.  A  man  should  be  receptive  as  well  as  creative  to  be  a 
success.  To  attain  these  higher  rungs  of  the  ladder  one  must  have  both 
abihty  and  apphcation  to  get  above  mediocrity. 

"It  is  said  that  Raphael,  the  great  painter,  was  once  asked  to  define 
art  in  a  single  sentence.  He  spent  a  year  in  endeavoring  to  encompass 
that  great  proposition  in  one  sentence.  Finally  he  evolved  this:  'Art 
consists  in  the  ability  to  see.'  It  applies  to  the  common  things  of  life  as 
well  as  to  the  greatest  efforts.  If  the  eye  does  not  see  the  picture  before 
it  is  painted  the  hand  will  never  paint  it.  Without  the  ability  to  see 
the  meaning  of  the  things  he  does,  a  man  is  robbed  of  half  his  power  and  a 
large  portion  of  his  reward.  To  define  the  art  of  judging,  it  consists 
simply  in  an  ability  to  see. 

''Every  one  of  us  is  responsible  for  liis  voluntary  acts.  Then  the 
quality  of  one's  herds  reveals  his  abihty  as  a  judge.  It  is  infallible  evi- 
dence of  his  ability  as  a  judge.  A  man  to  l)e  a  successful  improver  of  a 
breed  of  animals  must  be  able  to  see  beyond  the  surface  of  things.  He 
must  know  not  only  the  strength,  but  he  must  also  know  the  weakness  of 
the  animals  he  has  in  hand.  Such  a  man  must  possess  a  deep  sense  of 
l^enetration  into  the  knowledge  of  animal  nature  and  the  powers  of  re- 
production, and  must  be  a  student  of  nature's  laws  that  govern  and  in- 
fluence the  offspring.  He  will  be  a  man  of  keen  observation  and  thought, 
and  a  seeker  after  truth  and  knowledge.  Everj'-  animal  has  its  individu- 
ality. Its  character  is  indelibly  stamped  on  it,  an  infallible  guide  to  the 
man  who  can  read  the  indicator  correctly.  And  every  great  improver 
of  domestic  animals  has  had  this  faculty  strongly  developed.  But  few 
men  are  blessed  by  nature  with  an  endowment  of  this  faculty.  Right 
here  is  the  stumbling  block,  which  amounts  to  a  stone  wall  which  most 
breeders  never  surmount — their  inability  to  see  and  read  correctly  the 
indicator  on  their  animals.  While  I  do  not  wish  to  discourage  anyone, 
it  is  useless  to  hope  to  reach  any  great  degree  of  success  above  mediocrity 
without  this  ability  to  see. 

"As  to  the  impartial  and  fairly  competent  judge,  jow  may  give  liim 


ANIMAL   BREEDING  93 

the  best  animals  of  the  breed  and  he  will  not  only  fail  to  work  any 
improvement  with  them,  but  he  will  fail  to  maintain  the  high  excellence 
already  attained.  In  a  very  few  generations  the  herd  will  come  down  to 
fairly  good  animals,  just  on  a  par  with  his  fairly  good  judgment.  The 
herd  is  sure  soon  to  show  his  judgment  or  lack  of  judgment.  'By  their 
fruits  ye  shall  know  them,'  and  the  product  of  their  skill  is  the  only 
infallible  guide  of  breeders'  real  judgment.  Our  backward  track  is 
strewn  with  hundreds  and  thousands  of  cases  of  men  who  were  fairly 
competent  judges,  who  bought  high-class  animals  and  who  failed  to 
maintain  the  excellence  in  their  descendants.  If  a  man  know^s  not  w^hen 
the  features  are  right  or  wrong,  what  are  his  chances  for  improving 
them? 

REPRODUCTION 

In  order  that  animals  may  reproduce  there  must  be  a  male 
and  a  female.  Each  of  these  provides  one  of  the  two  essential 
parts  in  the  process  of  reproduction. 

The  female  produces  the  egg  which  is  like  the  hen's  egg 
only  very  much  smaller  and  has  no  hard  shell.  This  is  pro- 
duced in  the  ovary  which  hes  in  the  bod}^  near  the  backbone 
at  about  the  ^' small  of  the  back."  It  is  supposed  that  the 
period  of  heat  is  the  time  when  these  eggs  ripen  and  pass  down 
to  the  womb.  It  is  not  known  how  many  eggs  pass  down  each 
time  })ut  as  a  rule  more  than  one.  This  is  true  at  least  in  those 
animals  which  produce  multiple  offspring. 

The  womb  is  a  pear-shaped  organ  in  the  rear  part  of  the 
abdomen.  Its  neck  lies  back  into  the  vagina  which  opens 
to  the  exterior  by  means  of  the  vulva.  The  womb  is  simply  an 
organ  in  which  the  foetus  or  new  unborn  individual  develops. 
It  can  also  develop  in  the  abdominal  cavity  but  the  womb  is 
the  natural  place  and  was  made  for  that  purpose. 

The  real  live  or  vital  part  of  the  egg  is  the  nucleus,  a  small 
part  in  the  center  or  elsewhere  in  the  egg.  The  balance  of  the 
egg  is  food  material  for  the  new  individual  when  it  starts  to 
grow  as  a  new  and  separate  individual. 

The  male  animal  produces  the  other  half  of  the  necessary 
part  of  reproduction.  This  is  called  the  sperm  cell.  These 
cells  are  produced  in  the  testicles,  which  are  glands.  When 
an  animal  is  castrated,  these  glands  are  removed.  The 
animal  can  then  no  longer  be  used  as  a  sire.  As  these  sperm 
cells  are  produced  they  pass  up  into  the  body  and  are  stored  for 


94  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

such  time  as  they  may  be  needed.  This  is  at  the  time  of 
service  when  the  sperm  cells  of  the  male  are  deposited  in  the 
vagina  of  the  female.  They  are  usually  deposited  in  large 
numbers  but  only  one  is  needed  to  fertihze  an  egg.  These 
sperm  cells  look  a  little  like  tadpoles.  They  have  tails  by 
means  of  which  they  can  move  and  thus  get  into  the  opening 
through  the  neck  into  the  womb  and  there  meet  the  egg  cell 
from  the  female.  When  these  two  meet  and  the  conditions 
are  right  they  combine  and  form  the  new  individual.  This 
then  develops  from  two  cells  which  unite  and  make  one  cell 
and  then  this  grows  by  cell  division.  Next  there  are  two  cells, 
then  four,  eight,  sixteen,  thirty-two,  sixty-four,  etc. 

At  first  this  new  individual  lives  upon  the  food  contained 
in  the  egg.  After  a  very  short  time,  however,  it  attaches  itself 
to  the  wall  of  the  womb  and  absorbs  food  from  it.  The 
afterbirth  or  placenta  is  only  the  connection  between  the 
foetus  and  the  womb  of  the  dam. 

The  foetus  or  new  individual  is  an  entirel}^  independent 
individual.  It  has  its  own  hfe,  metabolism,  blood  circulation, 
etc.  But  it  cannot  use  its  lungs  to  purify  air  for  its  own 
metabolism,  consequently,  it  sends  its  blood  stream  by  means 
of  the  navel  cord  to  the  placenta  or  afterbirth  which  surrounds 
the  entire  foetus  and  attaches  to  the  interior  of  the  womb. 
Here  the  blood  is  spread  out  thinly,  as  in  the  lung  of  the 
animal  after  birth,  and  is  purified.  The  impurities  are  taken 
out  and  oxygen  is  taken  from  the  blood  stream  of  the  dam  and 
put  into  the  blood  stream  of  the  foetus.  ♦  These  materials  are 
passed  through  the  walls  of  adjoining  blood  vessels,  those  of 
the  dam  and  of  the  foetus.  Thus  there  is  no  direct  blood 
connection  between  the  dam  and  its  offspring. 

As  the  foetus  grows  the  womb  must  enlarge.  At  birth  when 
the  foetus  has  been  expelled  the  afterbirth  is  also  expelled  and 
the  womb  then  again  contracts  to  its  normal  size.  The 
foetus  is  expelled  by  means  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
of  the  womb  and  of  the  abdomen. 

HEREDITY 

A  new  animal  has  its  inception  or  beginning  when  the  sperm 
cell  of  the  male  and  the  egg  cell  of  the  female  unite.     This  is 


ANIMAL   BREEDING  95 

called  conception.  At  this  time  the  future  of  the  new  animal 
is  determined.  It  has  inherited  all  it  can  and  henceforth  only 
gets  nourishment  from  the  dam.  This  new  individual  has 
inherited  the  right  to  be  something  similar  to  its  ancestors, 
or  to  be  an  animal  of  the  same  species.     This  is  heredity. 

Ancestry. — A  newly  conceived  individual  comes  half  from 
its  siro  and  half  from  its  dam.  These  in  turn  owe  their  exist- 
ence and  their  characteristics  to  their  sire  and  dam.  Then, 
the  farther  back  one  goes  in  the  generations  of  the  ancestors 
of  a  certain  individual  the  less  is  the  influence  of  each. 

The  sire  and  the  dam  are  each  supposed  to  be  directly 
responsible  for  one-half  of  the  characteristics  of  a  given 
offspring,  the  four  grandparents  one-fourth,  the  eight  great 
grandparents  are  responsible  each  for  an  eighth  and  so  on 
back.  Each  of  the  ancestors,  however,  in  the  entire  pedigree 
no  matter  how  far  back  one  goes  is  supposed  to  have  some 
influence  on  any  particular  offspring  Sometimes  this  may 
be  so  small  that  it  is  not  noticeable.  A  pedigree  is  simply  a 
tabulation  of  the  ancestors  of  an  individual  in  their  regular 
order.     It  is  usually  written  thus: 

f'    .         /  Sire 
Sire     <  -p. 

Offspring  ]  ^^^^ 


Dam    ^  T-i 

Dam 

Sometimes  a  pedigree  is  written  out  by  enumerating  only 
part  of  the  sires  or  part  of  the  dams.  That  is,  going  farther 
with  one  or  two  lines  of  the  ancestry  and  not  the  whole  or  all 
the  lines.  This  is  manifestly  unfair  as  an  inferior  line  may  be 
left  out  when  these  have  as  much  influence  as  the  good 
individuals  in  the  pedigree. 

VARIATION 

It  is  frequently  noticed  that  there  is  a  marked  resemblance 
between  the  children  of  a  family;  also  sometimes  between  the 
children  and  one  or  the  other  of  the  parents.  When  certain 
characteristics  of  one  parent  become  visible  to  the  exclusion 
of  those  from  the  other  parent,  it  does  not  mean  that  those  not 
showing  are  not  there.     It  simply  means  that  they  are  not 


9()  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

visible.  But  they  are  there  and  will  manifest  themselves  in 
the  offspring  next  time  just  as  the  others  or  those  that  appear 
on  the  surface.  The  noticeable  characteristics  are  called 
dominant  and  those  disappearing  are  called  recessive.  Both 
exert  their  influence  on  the  next  generation. 

Resemblance  and  Difference. — Frequently  there  is  a  marked 
resemblance  between  the  members  of  a  family.  At  other 
times  there  is  also  a  marked  difference.  One  thing  is  very 
pronounced  and  also  very  important  in  this  connection,  namely, 
that  with  the  exception  of  some  twins  there  are  no  two  indi- 
viduals in  a  family  or  elsewhere  that  look  alike.  There  is 
always  some  variation.  Sometimes  this  variation  is  small 
and  sometimes  it  is  great.  It  is  not  all  one  way  either;  it  is 
on  the  side  of  improvement  as  well  as  on  the  side  of  retrogres- 
sion. That  is,  some  of  the  offspring,  are  better  and  some  arc 
not  so  good  as  their  parents.  The  division  is  also  about  half 
and  half,  a  small  number  deviate  or  vary  widely  on  either  side 
and  a  much  larger  number  vary  much  less  from  the  average 
of  sire  and  dam.  This  is  illustrated  by  drawings  by  the 
author  in  his  book,  ''Swine,"  page  108. 

At  first  thought  it  may  seem  that  if  half  of  the  offspring 
from  any  parents  or  in  any  large  herd  are  inferior  to  their 
parents,  this  would  be  a  bad  thing  in  animal  breeding.  But 
it  is  the  breeder's  only  salvation.  If  half  of  the  offspring  are 
poorer  then  the  other  half  are  better  and  it  is  by  means  of 
this  better  half  that  all  improvement  in  animal  breeding  is 

made. 

SELECTION 

According  to  the  law  of  variation,  then,  some  of  the  offspring 
are  better  and  others  are  poorer  than  the  parents.  Some  of 
the  offspring  are  considerably  better  than  the  ancestors  and  an 
occasional  one  is  very  much  better. 

The  breeder  who  wishes  to  make  improvement  in  his  ani- 
mals selects  these  better  ones  or  the  ones  that  have  the  varia- 
tion according  to  his  idea  of  improvement  and  mates  these  for 
his  future  animals.  These  then  produce  offspring  which  re- 
volve about  themselves  as  a  center  and  produce  both  poorer 
and  better  individuals  from  their  standpoint.  Thus  it  is  that 
improvement  is  made.     And  this  improvement  may.be  made 


ANIMAL    BUEKDINC;  97 

in  any  or  all  lines  within  the  realm  of  animal  variation  desired 
by  the  breeder. 

The  first  point  in  this  process  of  improving  animals  is 
that  there  must  be  variation.  This  is  always  present  in  all 
animals.  The  second  point  is  that  the  breeder  must  be  able 
to  see  these  and  select  the  animals  for  mating  that  have  desir- 
able variations.  This  again  brings  in  the  ability  of  the  man  in 
charge  in  a  very  prominent  way  and  it  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  value  of  a  breeding  herd  depends  upon  this  ability  of 
the  breeder.  With  this  consideration  in  mind,  it  can  readily 
be  seen  why  an  improved  pure-bred  animal,  provided  it  has 
been  properly  bred,  is  better  than  a  native  or  scrub. 

Breeding  in  nature  is  done  at  random  and  there  is  no  selec- 
tion or  mating  according  to  man's  idea  of  improvement. 
These  animals  in  nature  do  mate  frequently  on  a  basis  of  im- 
proved strength  and  vigor  and  consequently  we  have  some 
valuable  characteristics  ^vell  developed  in  nature's  normal 
animals.  The  American  broncho  is  not  set  up  as  an  ideal 
horse,  nevertheless  it  has  wonderful  endurance.  The  moose 
is  not  the  standard  beef  animal  but  can  live  in  a  climate  and 
subsist  on  feeds  which  would  be  certain  death  in  a  very  short 
time  to  the  modern  improved  beef  cow. 

An  inferior  pure-bred  animal  sometimes  called  a  pure-bred 
scrub  is  one  whose  variation  deviated  toward  the  lower  level 
or  toward  inferiority.  Such  an  animal  is  the  worst  kind  of  a 
scrub  because  it  has  these  characteristics  w^ell  fixed  by  breed- 
ing and  wall  produce  inferior  offspring. 

Many  times  people  buy  a  pure-bred  animal  at  a  ''long 
price,"  comparatively  speaking,  just  because  they  get  a 
piece  of  paper  or  registration  certificate  wdth  it.  If  this  ani- 
mal has  been  well  selected  it  is  all  right  but  if  it  has  not  been 
well  selected  it  is  all  w^-ong.  Such  an  inferior  pure-bred 
animal  is  not  so  good  for  livestock  work  as  a  grade  or  scrub 
animal  that  has  been  better  selected. 

Value  of  a  Sire. — The  value  of  a  good  sire  is  frequently 
\mderestimated.  Altogether  too  frequently  he  is  purchased 
because  he  is  a  pure  bred,  because  someone  wants  to  sell  him 
or  because  the  buyer  has  not  the  ability  to  select  a  good  one. 
It  is  a  common  saying  that  the  sire  is  "half  of  the  herd." 

7 


98  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

Yes,  in  a  way  he  is  more  than  half  of  the  herd.  He  is  responsi- 
ble for  half  of  the  characteristics  of  all  the  offsprin^i^.  One 
sire  can  be  used  to  every  20  to  100  dams.  Therefore, 
sires  can  be  much  more  closely  culled  than  dams  and  the  sire 
should  be  much  better  than  the  average  of  the  dams  in  any 
herd.  In  this  way  he  is  responsible  for  more  than  half  of  the 
improvement  that  is  made.  If  he  is  improperly  selected, 
retrogression  in  a  herd  will  be  rapid.  As  an  individual  the 
sire  is  only  one  in  a  herd  but  as  an  influence  he  is  by  far  the 
better  half. 

As  an  illustration,  suppose  that  a  bull  will  sire  40  calves  in 
a  herd  a  year  for  four  years.  This  will  make  160  calves  and 
suppose  that  each  calf  on  account  of  the  good  characteristics 
of  the  bull  is  worth  only  $10  more  than  a  calf  by  an  ordinary 
bull.  This  is  easily  possible  from  the  farmer's  standpoint 
and  will  make  the  bull  worth  $1600.  From  a  breeder's  stand- 
point a  sire  frequently  adds  $25,  $50  and  even  $100  to  the  value 
of  each  of  his  offspring. 

In  selecting  animals  for  a  breeding  herd,  both  sire  and  dam 
should  be  well  developed  in  the  points  mentioned  in  Chapter 
III;  namely,  in  quality,  wealth  of  flesh,  constitution,  length  of 
body,  form,  condition,  temperament,  etc.  If  the  dams  are 
weak  in  any  particular  point  the  sire  should  be  selected  to  be 
especially  strong  in  this  respect. 

ENVIRONMENT 

There  are  three  principal  factors  in  dealing  with  animals, 
namely,  breeding,  feeding  and  environment.  The  latter 
includes  all  the  conditions  to  which  the  animal  is  subjected 
not  included  in  the  other  two.  Environment,  therefore,  in- 
cludes such  factors  as  shelter,  pasture  or  range  for  exercise, 
as  compared  with  confinement,  temperature  of  surroundings, 
humidity  of  air,  dryness  of  soil,  topography  of  country,  shelter 
for  stock,  etc. 

Environment  like  breeding  and  feeding  is  a  factor  of  im- 
portance. The  condition  under  which  animals  are  kept  may 
be  so  abnormal  as  to  result  in  ill  health  and  even  death  in  a 
comparatively  short  time.  As  an  example  of  this,  the  question 
of  thumps  in  pigs  may  l)e  mentioned.     If  pigs  are  kept  confined 


ANIMAL   BREEDING  99 

without  exercise  for  more  than  two  or  three  weeks  after  birth 
they  are  Hkely  to  get  this  disease,  and  some  almost  invariably 
die.  Sometimes  whole  litters  die.  Like  results  are  likely  to 
occur  with  other  animals,  but,  of  course,  death  does  not  always 
come  in  the  same  form. 

Environment  or  the  influence  of  surrounding  conditions 
may  also  act  more  slowly  and  extend  through  several  genera- 
tions. Then  it  is  said  that  the  stock  ''runs  out"  and  new 
blood  must  be  introduced.  But  this  is  caused  by  either  one  of 
the  three  above-mentioned  factors,  namely,  breeding,  feeding 
or  environment.  The  animals  may  be  kept  under  conditions 
which  are  not  favorable  to  improvement  and  then  they  go 
back.  Such  conditions  in  time  will  reduce  them  in  general 
usefulness  to  a  point  at  which  they  will  no  longer  be  able  to 
fulfill  their  purpose. 

In  furnishing  an  environment  for  farm  animals  two  main 
points  should  be  kept  in  mind.  (1)  The  animals  should  be 
kept  under  conditions  that  are  as  nearly  normal  or  as  to  those 
of  natare  as  possible.  (2)  These  natural  conditions  should  be 
modified  to  fit  the  improved  rather  than  the  wild  animal. 

Acquired  Characteristics. — The  characteristics  infused  into 
animals  by  several  generations  of  environment,  feeding  and 
breeding  become  fixed  and  are  transmitted  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  to  the  offspring.  Thus,  the  man  who  uses  the  right 
kind  of  a  sire  may  get  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  more  gain 
on  his  animals  than  he  would  if  he  used  the  wrong  kind  of  a 
sire.  Furthermore,  he  may  not  himself  be  in  position  to 
produce  the  right  kind  of  a  sire. 

The  characteristics  that  animals  acquire  owing  to  environ- 
ment, etc.,  may  be  either  good  or  bad.  On  this  account, 
the  author  always  makes  it  a  practice  to  study  first  the  en- 
vironment under  which  the  animals  were  developed,  then  the 
feeding,  then  the  type  and  conformation,  and  finally  the  breed- 
ing or  pedigree.  In  buying  an  animal  on  pedigree  alone  there 
is  onl}^  a  rare  chance  of  getting  a  good  one.  The  above- 
mentioned  factors  may  all  be  on  the  wrong  side  with  their 
influence.  As  shown,  previously,  one-half  of  the  offspring 
are  below  the  average  and  again  the  breeder  frequently  keeps 
the  best  ones  for  his  own  use. 


100  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

With  all  this  in  mind,  it  may  readily  be  seen  what  a  power 
for  good  is  the  animal  that  has  all  the  right  factors.  Any 
man  who  can  combine  all  such  factors  in  the  right  way  has  a 
license  to  be  an  animal  breeder  of  the  very  first  rank.  He 
has  a  very  valuable  heritage. 

BREEDING  PRACTICE 

Everyone  who  knows  anything  about  livestock  is  more  or 
less  familiar  with  the  different  phases  of  breeding,  namely, 
ordinary  breeding,  line  breeding,  out-crossing,  close  breed- 
ing, in-breeding,  cross  breeding,  and  grading.  Any  kind  of 
breeding  means  the  mating  of  sire  and  dam  so  as  to  produce 
offspring.  When  the  breeding  of  the  animal  is  mentioned  it 
takes  into  consideration  all  of  the  animals  in  the  pedigree  or 
all  the  ancestors  on  both  sides  of  the  pedigree  or  of  sire  and 
dam. 

Ordinary  breeding  consists  of  the  mating  of  animals  of 
similar  characteristics  and  as  good  as  can  be  had,  without 
very  much  if  any  relationship  between  sire  and  dam. 

By  line  breeding  is  meant  breeding  animals  along  the  same 
general  line,   with  some  relationship  between  the  ancestors. 

Out-crossing  refers  to  the  mating  of  animals  not  at  all  re- 
lated and  sometimes  also  different  in  type  and  characteristics 
but  of  the  same  breed. 

Close  breeding  is  a  degree  closer  than  line  breeding  and  is 
sometimes  defined  as  the  mating  of  cousins. 

In-breeding  is  the  mating  of  animals  of  the  closest  relation- 
ship, such  as  mating  parent  and  offspring  or  brother  and  sister. 

In  cross  breeding,  animals  of  different  breeds  are  mated. 

By  grading  is  meant  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  sire  on  dams  that 
are  not  pure  bred.  Animals  produced  by  the  first  one  or  two 
crosses  are  called  just  grades.  When  a  pure-bred  sire  has  been 
used  constantly  and  for  three  or  more  generations,  the  offspring 
are  still  grades,  but  may  be  called  high  grades. 

The  first  offspring  from  a  pure-bred  sire  and  scrub  dam  is 
half  pure  bred.  The  next  cross,  or  when  this  so-called  half- 
blood  is  again  mated  with  a  pure  bred,  will  be  three-fourths 
pure,  the  next  seven-eighths,  the  next  one  fifteen-sixteenths, 
and  so  on. 


ANIMAL    BRKKDINC  101 

In  the  ordinarj^  practice  of  breeding,  in-breeding  jind 
frequently  also  close  breeding  are  generally  avoided.  This  is 
considered  a  delicate  problem  which  only  the  best  breeders 
should  meddle  with.  It  is  generally  held  that  offspring  pro- 
duced b\^  mating  relatives  are  likely  to  be  inferior  by  being 
smaller,  weaker,  deformed,  etc.  In  the  human  family  this  is  a 
question  of  such  importance  that  national  laws  and  popular 
opinion  prevent  marriages  between  relatives. 

In-breeding  brings  together  and  combines  similarities  and, 
therefore,  fixes  characteristics  from  sire  and  dam  that  are 
similar.  As  shown  previously,  these  may  contain  character- 
istics of  an  inferior  kind  in  a  recessive  or  invisible  form. 
When  related  animals  are  mated  these  weaknesses  are  com- 
bined and  intensified  in  the  offspring.  This  will  result  in 
inferiority.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  related  animals  that  are 
mated  are  made  up  of  all  strong  and  no  weak  points  that  are 
visible  or  invisible,  these  wdll  also  become  fixed  and  the  result 
will  be  a  very  good  individual. 

Since  nearly  all  animals  are  affected  with  weaknesses  in- 
breeding should  not  generally  be  practised.  It  can  and  should 
be  practised,  however,  if  the  proper  kind  of  individuals  can 
be  mated.  This  again  requires  extraordinary  ability  on  the 
part  of  the  breeder. 

As  in-breeding  is  supposed  to  produce  debility,  so  cross 
breeding  is  supposed  to  produce  vigor.  Whether  this  is  true 
is  not  yet  a  settled  question.  In  experience,  good  pure-bred 
animals  are  just  as  good  for  meat  or  work  animals  as  good 
cross-bred  ones.  It  is  also  generally  known  that  cross-bred 
animals  cannot  successfully  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 
This  being  true  it  becomes  a  fact  that  by  cross  breeding  one 
destroys  all  the  improvement  and  excellence  of  careful  and 
painstaking  work  previously  done.  Thus,  there  is  nothing 
to  be  gained  and  everything  to  be  lost  by  cross  breeding. 

A  Pure  Bred. — A  pure-bred  animal  is  one  that  is  recorded. 
That  is,  its  name,  together  with  its  date  of  birth,  breeder, 
owner,  its  sire  and  dam,  etc.,  are  on  record  in  the  office  or 
publications  of  the  breed  association.  With  some  breeds 
there  are  several  registry  associations.  Most  associations  at 
at  the  present  time  require  that  both  sire  and  dam  of  the 


102  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

animal  to  be  registered  shall  be  pure  bred,  or  on  record. 
Thus  it  is  impossible  to  bring  any  new  blood  into  the  breed. 
And  no  matter  how  good  or  how  high  a  grade  linimal  one  has, 
it  cannot  be  registered. 

During  the  early  time  of  the  history  of  the  breeds  the  rules 
were  such  that  a  good  grade  animal  with  a  certain  number  of 
crosses  of  pure  blood  could  be  registered.  But  as  the  associa- 
tions became  older  and  the  number  of  pure-bred  animals 
larger  and  the  number  of  grades  smaller,  the  rules  were  gradu- 
ally changed  so  that  now  in  the  main,  only  animals  with  pure- 
bred ancestors  on  both  sides  can  be  registered.  This  in  the 
main  is  right.  But  one  of  the  best  dams  ever  seen  by  the 
writer  was  a  non-registered  one  and  she  could  not  be  registered. 
In  cases  like  this,  the  work  of  the  registry  associations  might 
be  improved,  if  these  good  animals  could  be  recorded.  This 
might  be  done  by  inspection,  by  a  breeding  trial,  etc. 

Some  of  the  registration  associations  also  have  rules  to 
the  effect  that  animals  must  be  registered  before  they  reach  a 
certain  age.  Thus  by  oversight  or  neglect  some  of  the  best 
pure-bred  animals  may  become  non-eligible. 

GESTATION 

The  period  of  gestation  is  the  time  during  which  the  foetus 
develops  in  the  womb  of  the  dam.  It  is  the  time  from  concep- 
tion to  delivery  and  varies  with  different  animals.  With 
the  mare  it  is  about  eleven  months.  The  cow  carries  her 
calf  about  nine  months  and  a  week.  The  ewe  drops  her  lamb 
about  five  months  or  152  days  after  service,  and  the  sow 
farrows  about  114  days,  or  three  months,  three  weeks  and  three 
days  after  she  is  bred.  At  the  time  dams  are  bred  they  should 
be  in  good  condition  physically  and  should  be  kept  gaining 
rather  than  losing  during  the  period  of  gestation. 

Sometimes  one  hears  it  said  that  the  young  in  the  womb  of 
the  dam,  or  the  foetus,  is  subject  to  various  influences.  That 
is,  it  may  be  influenced  by  the  fact  that  the  dam  previously 
was  bred  to  a  different  kind  of  a  sire,  or  that  the  dam,  while 
the  foetus  is  being  developed,  has  unusual  experiences  by 
sight,  hearing,  sensation,  etc.  But  most  of  the  best  authorities 
agree  now  that  such  are  not  the  facts  and  that  the  foetus 


ANIMAL   BRP^EDING  103 

develops  according  to  the  inherent  tendencies  which  it  received 
at  conception.  And  that  the  womb  of  the  dam  is  only  a  dwell- 
ing place  for  the  foetus  and  a  means  for  it  to  get  nourishment. 

BREEDING  FOR  SEX 

The  subject  of  sex  determination  has  long  been  a  popular 
subject  for  experimentation  and  discussion.  A  great  many 
theories  have  been  advanced  by  which  it  has  been  said  that  the 
sex  of  the  offspring  could  be  determined,  but  practically  all 
of  them  have  been  disproved  or  found  not  to  hold  good. 

The  latest  theory  brought  out  in  this  connection  has  not 
as  yet  had  time  to  be  disproved  or  to  be  found  untrue  and  also 
agrees  with  some  earlier  statements.  This  is  based  on  the 
age  of  the  sperm  cell  (time  after  discharge  from  male)  when  it 
unites  with  the  egg.  It  is  generally  understood  that  sire  and 
dam  are  mated  or  the  dam  is  bred,  at  the  time  of  the  period 
of  heat.  This  is  the  time,  as  stated  previously,  when  the 
ripened  egg  comes  to  the  womb  to  be  fertilized.  It  is  not 
always  known  during  what  part  of  the  period  of  heat  the  eggs 
come  down  but  sometimes  it  is  said  that  it  is  during  the  last 
part.  The  time  may  vary  with  different  animals.  If  the 
dam  is  bred  during  the  last  part  of  the  period  of  heat,  when 
the  egg  is  in  the  womb  ready  to  be  fertilized  and  the  sperm  cell 
deposited  by  the  male  unites  with  it  at  once,  while  it  is  still 
fresh,  the  offspring  is  supposed  to  be  a  male.  But  if  the  dam 
is  served  during  the  early  part  of  the  period  of  heat  and  the 
egg  has  not  yet  come  down  the  sperm  cell  from  the  sire  will 
become  stale.  If  the  egg  is  fertilized  by  a  stale  sperm  cell 
(but,  of  course,  before  it  dies)  the  offspring  is  said  to  develop 
into  a  female.  Sperm  cells  may  live  a  day  or  more  in  the 
womb  of  the  female. 

According  to  this  theory  a  fresh  sperm  cell  will  produce  a 
male  and  a  stale  sperm  cell  will  produce  a  female.  Or  if  the 
breeding  is  done  during  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  heat 
the  likelihood  of  getting  males  is  greater  and  if  breeding  is  done 
during  the  early  part  of  the  period  of  heat  the  offspring  will  be 
more  largely  females.  On  account  of  probable  variations  in 
indefinite  factors  it  can  be  clearly  seen  that  with  animals  at 
least  it  would  be  impossible  to  produce  all  males  or  all  females. 


104  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

But  if  the  theory  is  correct,  it  ought  to  be  possible  with  due 
care  to  modify  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  in  the  offspring. 

Sex  determination  is  also  a  family  characteristic.  Sires  or 
dams  from  families  that  run  strong  to  either  sex  may  be 
depended  upon  to  produce  a  larger  proportion  of  that  par- 
ticular sex  in  their  offspring. 

STARTING  A  LIVESTOCK  FARM 

In  starting  a  livestock  farm  it  is  well  to  remember  the  im- 
portance of  the  sire  as  mentioned  previously.  Considera- 
tion should  9,lso  be  given  to  environment,  nature  of  country, 
location,  etc. 

The  Herd  Sire. — Since  the  sire  plays  such  an  important 
part  in  any  herd  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep  or  swine,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  selecting  him.  A  herd  sire  may  be 
purchased  while  he  is  young  or  he  may  be  purchased  when  he 
is  old.  To  select  and  buy  a  good  young  sire  requires  more 
ability  than  to  select  one  wlien  he  has  come  to  maturity.  But 
in  buying  a  young  sire  one  saves  on  express  charges  and  if  the 
buyer  has  the  ability  he  may  be  able  to  get  an  extra  good  one 
that  might  not  later  be  available.  In  buying  young  sires  also 
one  takes  chances  that  he  may  not  develop  into  as  good  an 
individual  as  he  promises  in  early  life.  There  is  also  more 
chance  of  losing  him  by  accident  or  death. 

In  buying  an  old  and  tried  sire  one  has  a  record  of  per- 
formances to  go  by  which  is  a  sure  index  of  what  he  can  do. 
An  old  sire  also  is  large  enough  to  allow  more  than  the  best- 
trained  man  to  recognize  his  points  of  excellence.  Many 
times  such  a  sire  is  available  from  a  small  herd  where  he  can 
no  longer  be  kept  on  account  of  in-breeding.  Buying  an 
old  sire  from  a  small  herd  is  a  good  way  sometimes  to  get  a 
good  sire.  But  on  the  other  hand,  good  breeders  usually  keep 
their  good  sires  or  else  sell  them  at  prices  that  would  be 
prohibitive  to  beginners. 

Many  times  a  group  of  breeders  get  together  and  form  a 
community  breeding  association.  This  association  then  buys 
a  sire  for  common  use.  This  is  an  excellent  practice  because 
it  reduces  the  expense  per  farmer  and  enables  them  to  buy 
a  better  individual  than  one  man  alone  could  afford.     Some 


ANIMAL   BREEDING  105 

agieement,  of  course,  is  made  among  the  members  of  the 
association  as  to  the  manner  of  keeping  and  the  time  of  using 
the  sire. 

After  a  man  once  has  a  start  in  the  Uvestock  business  one 
of  the  best  ways  to  get  a  good  sire  is  to  produce  him.  This, 
of  course,  cannot  always  be  done,  but  when  it  can  be  done  it 
is  a  most  excellent  practice. 

Granting  that  a  man  has  a  certain  amount  of  money  to  put 
into  a  livestock  business,  in  starting  he  should  put  a  consider- 
able portion  into  a  good  sire.  Then  he  should  get  one  or 
more  pure-bred  dams  and  put  the  rest  of  his  money  into  good 
grade  stock.  The  latter  may  as  a  rule  be  picked  up  in  almost 
any  locality  where  one  starts.  Of  course,  if  a  man  can  afford 
to  start  with  pure  breds  so  much  the  better.  But  it  takes 
more  than  a  few  individuals  in  a  herd  to  make  a  business  of 
sufficient  magnitude  to  make  it  worth  one's  while  and  good 
grades  are  just  as  good  for  ordinary  purposes  as  inferior  pure 
breds. 

Even  if  a  man  should  decide  to  go  into  the  business  of  live- 
stock breeding  and  aim  primarily  to  sell  stock  for  breeding 
purposes,  he  could  not  start  in  a  large  way  because  he  would 
first  need  to  work  up  a  business  and  a  reputation.  He  would 
also  have  to  develop  a  herd  capable  of  attracting  attention. 
All  this  takes  time  during  which  he  would  have  to  be  doing 
business  with  the  meat  markets.  This  can  be  done  to  good 
advantage  with  grade  dams  and  a  good  pure-bred  sire.  Many 
times  also  a  man  needs  to  get  experience  which  can  be  had 
with  grades  more  cheaply  than  with  pure  breds. 

Environment. — The  general  importance  of  environment  has 
already  been  discussed.  There  are  few,  if  any,  places  in  any 
country  where  livestock  cannot  be  kept  profitably,  but  there 
are  some  places  that  are  better  than  other  places  for  this 
kind  of  agricultural  endeavor. 

A  climate  that  is  not  too  hot  nor  too  cold  is  better  than 
one  that  goes  to  both  extremes.  Humidity  also  is  an  im- 
i:)ortant  factor.  Too  much  dampness,  especially  in  winter, 
is  ver}^  severe  on  all  classes  of  livestock.  Where  such  condi- . 
tions  prevail  it  requires  a  little  more  care  and  expense  to  keep 
the  animals  comfortable. 


106  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

An  open  prairie  country  is  not  so  good  as  a  wooded  country. 
The  timber  affords  shade  in  summer  and  protection  from  cold 
winds  in  winter.  A  rolHng  or  hilly  country  is  also  better  than 
a  level  country,  because  there  is  better  drainage  and  better 
exercise  for  the  animals;  possibly,  also,  more  protection  from 
winds. 

The  nature  of  a  soil  together  with  the  humidity  of  the  climate 
is  of  very  great  importance.  Some  soils  produce  grass  well 
and  others  do  not.  In  some  places  also  the  grass  is  much  more 
nutritious  than  in  others. 

Another  factor  to  be  considered  is  the  size  of  the  pasture 
to  be  provided.  Growing  animals  and  breeding  stock  need 
considerable  exercise.  Consequently,  a  large  pasture  is  always 
better  than  a  small  one. 

Location. — A  livestock  farm  should  be  well  located  with 
respect  to  the  markets.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  livestock 
products  can  be  marketed  more  cheaply  and  more  advanta- 
geously than  grain  products.  But  the  closer  to  market  the 
better.  This  fact  is  especially  true  for  the  man  who  is  in  the 
pure-bred  business.  Such  a  man  generally  makes  frequent 
trips  to  the  railway  station  with  crated  animals  and  when  the 
distance  is  too  great  it  is  hard  on  the  animals  and  also  increases 
the  expense.  A  livestock  breeder  also  has  many  visitors  who 
come  to  inspect  his  stock  and  these  must  be  furnished  trans- 
portation to  and  from  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  VI 
HORSES 

The  universal  question  that  comes  up  in  connection  with  the 
farm  is  horsepower  both  for  work  and  for  travel. 

The  horse  is  a  machine  used  by  man  to  appropriate  to  his 
own  use  the  energy  stored  up  in  plants.  The  horse  eats  these 
feeds  and  uses  the  energy  to  develop  power  for  his  master. 
This  brings  out  one  of  the  most  important  phases  of  the  horse 
industry,  namely,  exercise. 

HORSE  ENVIRONMENT 

Since  the  horse  is  valuable  only  as  it  can  develop  speed  and 
power  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  its  environment  ])e 
such  that  these  be  developed. 

Colts. — It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  all  young  animals,  as 
they  are  growing,  need  exercise.  It  seems  to  be  true  that  the 
energy  of  feeds  cannot  all  be  used  for  growth  and  that  some 
of  it  needs  to  be  worked  off  in  the  form  of  exercise.  If  this 
is  an  important  factor  with  all  animals,  and  without  doubt  it 
is,  then  it  is  doubly  important  in  the  care  of  colts.  These 
animals  should  be  developed  especially  with  respect  to  their 
powers  of  locomotion,  and  for  this  exercise  is  very  important. 
Whoever  has  seen  colts  is  famiUar  with  their  ability  and 
willingness  to  run.  The  mother  very  frequently  is  decidedly 
worried  for  fear  her  baby  will  get  lost.  Exercise  may  be 
provided  as  the  owner  sees  fit.  But  perhaps  the  most  econom- 
ical as  well  as  the  best  way  is  in  a  good  large  pasture.  This 
is  necessary  not  only  for  the  colts  but  also  for  the  mature 
horses  and  especially  the  brood  mares. 

Work  Horses. — What  is  the  purpose  of  the  long  period  of 
training  in  preparing  for  a  horse  race  or  a  prize  fight?  To 
develop  the  muscles  for  the  work  that  is  to  be  done.  This 
training  may  start  a  long  time  before  the  event,  and  the  longer 

107 


108  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

the  better.  It  may  begin  even  genei'ations  before.  It  can 
be  understood,  therefore,  how  important  it  is  that  a  horse 
should  not  be  confined  to  a  barn  without  regular  and  syste- 
matic exercise. 

When  horses  are  at  hard  labor  it  is  best  not  to  turn  them 
out  for  the  night.  They  need  the  night  to  rest.  It  is  a  good 
practice,  however,  to  let  them  out  into  the  yard  for  a  short 
time  in  the  evening  when  they  come  in  from  the  field.  This 
gives  them  a  chance  to  roll  and  limber  up  so  that  they  will 
eat  better  and  feel  better.  When  horses  are  not  at  work, 
however,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  barn 
unless  they  are  exercised.  Even  during  the  winter  horses 
should  be  given  the  freedom  of  a  yard  except  possibly  on  the 
coldest  and  stormiest  days.  They  should  not,  however,  be 
exposed  to  cold  rains. 

Fences. — It  should  be  remembered  that  horses  frequently 
paw  at  a  fence,  and  if  the  fence  is  made  of  barbed  wires  which 
are  too  close  to  the  ground,  there  is  much  danger.  Many  a 
horse  has  been  ruined  by  getting  its  foot  across  a  barbed  wire 
and  then  pulling.  When  the  pull  is  a  little  sidewise  or  along 
the  wire  as  it  usually  is,  a  severe  gash  is  usually  cut  at  the 
back  of  the  hoof  and  pastern.  In  order  to  avoid  accidents 
like  this  a  woven  wire  may  be  used.  A  woven-wire  strand 
with  a  few  barbed  wires  on  top  is  good.  If  an  all-barbed-wire 
fence  is  made  the  lower  wire  should  be  put  as  high  above  the 
ground  as  possible. 

Housing. — A  horse  barn  should  be  built  especially  to  provide 
comfort  and  health  for  the  horses  and  economy  of  labor  for 
the  help.  It  should  be  well  ventilated  and  well  lighted.  The 
windows  also  should  not  be  too  close  to  the  heads  of  the 
horses.  When  a  horse  stands  with  its  head  toward  a  window 
which  is  in  the  wall  above  the  manger,  where  the  manger  is 
attached  to  the  wall,  there  is  too  much  variation  in  light, 
lender  such  conditions  when  the  horse  has  its  head  up  its 
eyes  are  in  the  bright  light.  When  the  head  is  down  in  the 
manger,  the  eyes  are  in  the  dark.  Thus,  there  is  a  constant 
changing  for  the  eyes  from  light  to  dark  and  vice  versa  which 
is  very  bad  for  these  most  important  organs. 

A  horse  barn  need  not  be  made  especially   warm.     \^ery 


HORSES  109 

often  one  sees  horses  and  dairy  cows  kept  in  the  same  barn. 
This  is  not  right.  The  horse  does  not  need  so  warm  a  barn 
as  the  dairy  cow.  A  combination  barn  where  both  are  kept 
in  the  same  part  is  either  too  warm  for  the  horses  or  too  cold 
for  the  cows. 

The  barn  on  the  farm  of  August  Wentzel,  Polk  County, 
Minnesota,  is  the  best  horse  barn  for  farm  purposes  that  has 
come  to  the  notice  of  the  author.  There  is  a  wide  alley  in  the 
center,  wide  enough  for  hitching  and  unhitching  horses,  and 
for  driving  through  with  a  manure  spreader.  On  each  side 
of  this  alley  is  a  row  of  stalls  facing  out.  In  front  of  each  row 
is  an  alley  for  feeding.  This  is  wide  enough  to  allow  the  feeder 
to  work  easily,  and  the  windows  are  far  enough  away  from  the 
horse  not  to  blind  it. 

The  barn  has  sufficient  mow  room  for  the  storage  of  ha}^ 
and  straw  and  also  bins  for  several  thousand  bushels  of  oats. 
The  grain  comes  down  in  spouts  at  the  center  of  the  barn 
which  makes  feeding  handy.  The  hay  also  is  thrown  down 
chutes  into  the  feeding  alley.  The  barn  is  provided  with  box 
stalls,  harness  room,  and  screen  doors  and  windows.  The 
screen  doors  and  windows  keep  out  the  flies  and  mosquitoes. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  hanging  work  harnesses  immediately 
back  of  each  team. 

A  horse-barn  floor  should  be  such  that  the  horse  has  a 
smooth  and  nearly  level  place  to  stand.  There  probably  is 
no  better  floor  than  mother  earth  but  this  kind  of  a  floor  is 
not  always  kept  in  order.  In  such  case,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  provide  something  artificial.  The  material  to  use  is  the 
one  that  comes  nearest  to  providing  natural  conditions  and 
that  can  be  provided  at  the  least  cost. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  HORSES 

When  the  subject  of  horse  feeding  is  mentioned  the  first 
thing  that  enters  one's  mind  is  oats.  This  grain  is  primarily 
a  horse  feed. 

Concentrates. — Oats  are  considered  a  concentrate  yet  they 
contain  considerable  roughage  in  the  form  of  the  hulls,  which 
are  largely,  if  not  altogether,  indigestible.  On  this  account 
oats  are  not  too  concentrated.     Oats  also  are  made  up  of  a 


110  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM, 

good  combination  of  nutrients,  having  considerable  protein 
besides  the  carbohydrates.  They  are  also  especially  valuable 
on  account  of  their  richness  in  fat  and  mineral  matter.  Thus 
it  is  seen  that  oats  makes  a  pretty  well-balanced  ration. 

Besides,  oats  seem  to  give  horses  life,  vim,  activity,  and 
power. 

Corn  is  probably  next  in  importance  as  a  feed  for  horses. 
This  grain,  however,  is  more  of  a  fattening  feed  and  lacks  the 
nerve  stimulus.  Barley  is  also  used  to  some  extent  but  this 
is  not  so  well  relished  as  is  either  oats  or  corn. 

To  supply  a  laxative  and  also  a  little  more  protein  wheat 
bran  is  frequently  used.  This  is  very  often  fed  as  a  mash 
once  or  twice  a  week  to  help  keep  the  bowels  in  order.  Some- 
times it  is  also  fed  dry  regularly  as  a  part  of  the  ration.  To 
obtain  more  protein  for  the  growing  colt  oil  meal  is  frequently 
used.  This  is  what  is  left  from  flax  after  extracting  the  oil. 
From  this  it  seems  that  ground  flax  would  also  be  good  both 
as  a  source  of  protein  and  as  a  laxative. 

Roughages. — Since  the  principal  concentrated  horse  feeds 
are  of  the  carbohydrate  nature,  the  variation  as  between 
feeding  colts  and  work  horses  is  primarily  in  the  roughage  part 
of  the  ration.  Timothy  hay  is  primarily  a  horse  hay.  It  is 
a  carbohydrate  roughage  and  is  adapted  to  feeding  work  or 
mature  horses.  Such  animals  need  only  enough  protein  for 
maintenance  and  can  develop  energy  or  do  work  to  the  best 
advantage  and  most  economically  on  carbohydrate  feeds. 
These,  as  a  rule,  also  contain  enough  protein  for  maintenance. 

When  it  comes  to  feeding  colts,  however,  timothy  hay  should 
not  be  used.  Leguminous  hays  like  alfalfa,  clover,  pea  hay, 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  protein  feeds  and  furnish  the  material 
for  growth,  should  be  substituted. 

Mineral  Matter. — It  is  common  knowledge  among  farmers 
that  horses  frequently  eat  the  bark  oif  trees;  also,  that  many 
times  when  poplar  saplings  are  cut  and  left  in  the  yard  the 
horses  eat  off  the  bark.  Sometimes,  also,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  horses  are  seen  to  go  onto  a  plowed  field  and  eat  dirt  by 
the  mouthful.  All  this  is  simply  an  indication  of  the  require- 
ment of  mineral  matter  by  the  metabolism.  These  substances 
must  be  had  or  the  internal  machinery  will  not  work  right. 


HORSES  1 1 1 

Horses  should  always  have  salt  before  them,  and,  if  they 
will  eat  it,  bone  meal  and  finely  ground  limestone.  Hardwood 
ashes  may  also  be  offered . 

Water. — One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  ration  for 
the  horse  as  well  as  for  other  animals  is  water.  The  manner 
in  which  water  is  given,  how^ever,  is  not  always  given  due 
importance. 

Water  should  be  taken  when  the  feed  is  in  the  stomach  to 
aid  digestion.  It  should  also  be  used  for  heat  regulation,  etc. 
Horses  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  drink  when  they 
are  very  warm  as  when  coming  in  from  hard  work.  This 
may  cause  various  disorders. 

After  horses  come  in  from  work  if  they  are  ''warm"  they 
should  be  allowed  to  cool  off  and  then  be  watered  before  they 
are  fed.  They  should  again  be  watered  after  eating  and 
])efore  they  go  out  to  work.  It  has  recently  also  been  found 
to  be  good  practice  to  w^ater  them  the  last  thing  at  night  before 
going  to  bed. 

Maimer  of  Feeding. — Roughages  are  cheaper  feeds  than 
concentrates,  as  has  been  show^n,  and  should,  therefore,  be 
used  as  largely  as  possible.  No  greater  mistake,  however,  is 
made  in  horse  feeding  than  to  give  the  horses  all  the  hay  they 
will  eat.  Many  farmers  keep  their  horse  manger  crammed 
with  hay  all  the  time.  The  horses  in  turn  keep  their  stomachs 
and  bow^els  crammed  likewise.  This  makes  horses  look  like 
stuffed  toads,  and  very  materially  lessens  the  value  of  the 
animals,  and  w^astes  hay. 

Horses  should  be  fed  definite  amounts  of  hay  as  well  as 
of  grains.  For  ordinary  purposes,  1  pound  of  hay  and  1  pound 
of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  hve  weight  is  considered  to  be 
about  right.  For  driving  horses  or  draft  horses  at  hard  work, 
more  grain  and  less  hay  should  be  used.  When  horses  are 
not  working  so  hard  more  hay  and  less  grain  should  be  used. 
In  winter  horses  can  be  w^ell  maintained  on  hay  alone.  Many 
horses  are  also  "wintered  over"  on  straw  with  just  'a  httle 
grain. 

The  horse  is  primarily  a  w^ork  animal  and  uses  its  feed  for 
developing  energy.  Therefore,  the  amount  of  feed  should  be 
apportioned  according  to  the  amount  of  work  done.     A  com- 


112  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

iiion  mistake  is  to  feed  horses  a  uniformly  iiigh  grain  ration  on 
Sundays  and  rainy  days  as  well  as  on  work  days.  This  fi-e- 
quently  results  in  azoturia,  which  very  often  is  fatal,  and  in 
other  troubles.  A  good  rule  to  follow,  then,  is  to  cut  down 
the  ration  and  especially  the  grain  part  on  days  when  the 
horses  are  not  at  work.  Of  course,  horses  that  are  very  much 
worked  down  and  are  thin  in  flesh  can  stand  a  little  extra 
feed  occasionally  on  days  when  they  are  idle.  But  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  barn  at  such  times  and  become 
stiff. 

THE   CARE   OF  HORSES 

With  environment  and  feeding,  two  of  the  most  important 
matters  have  been  provided.  There  are  a  few  other  points 
that  should  not  be  overlooked. 

Fitting  the  Harness. — Harness  for  a  horse  should  be  fitted 
well  at  all  points,  especially  the  collar.  This  should  fit  the 
neck  perfectly.  A  sweatpad  is  frequently  used  to  produce 
a  fit,  and,  as  is  sometimes  said,  to  make  a  softer  contact  with 
the  shoulders.  It  is  a  great  deal  better,  however,  to  have  a 
collar  fitted  without  a  sweatpad  than  with  one.  The  sweat- 
pad  is  too  warm  and  not  easily  enough  cleaned.  There  is 
nothing  better  than  a  good  leather  collar  well  fitted  and  kept 
perfectly  smooth  and  clean. 

A  collar  should  always  be  cleaned  at  night  when  it  is  re- 
moved from  the  horse.  At  this  time  dirt  on  its  face  is  soft 
and  can  easily  be  rubbed  ofT.  A  wisp  of  hay  or  a  sharpened 
piece  of  soft  wood,  followed  by  a  piece  of  cloth,  to  leave  a 
smooth  polished  surface,  are  good  for  this  purpose.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  not  to  roughen  the  face  of  the  collar. 

Sometimes  as  horses  become  thinner  during  a  season  of 
hard  work  the  collars  become  too  large.  If  there  are  several 
horses  on  a  farm  the  difficulty  can  be  remedied  by  getting  a 
new  collar  for  the  smallest  horse  and  shifting  collars  from  the 
smaller  to  the  larger  animals. 

Feet. — A  horse's  feet  should  always  be  kept  clean  and  well 
trimmed.  Shoes  are  necessary  only  when  the  feet  are  tender 
or  worn  down  too  much,  or  to  prevent  slipping.  When  shoes 
are  used  they  should  be  reset  about  once  a  month. 


HOUSES  li;5 

When  horses  are  not  shod  the  feet  should  be  kept  trimmed 
to  proper  length  at  all  times.  This  is  especially  true  with 
colts.  Serious  trouble  in  after  life  may  follow  neglect,  and 
materially  lessen  the  value  of  the  horse. 

In  nature  horses  do  not  stand  upon  dry  and  hard  floors 
as  is  frequently  the  case  with  domestic  horses.  If  the  feet 
are  inclined  to  become  too  dry,  the  horse  should  be  allowed 
to  stand  and  work  in  a  place  that  has  more  dampness.  Horses 
should  always  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  comfortable  place  and 
should  be  kept  clean  by  currying,  brushing  and  wiping.  In 
the  spring  horses  should  be  given  extra  care.  They  shoulil 
not,  after  being  idle  all  winter,  be  given  hard  labor  suddenly. 
They  come  out  of  the  winter  soft  and  should  be  prepared  for 
the  hard  work  of  spring  beforehand.  They  should  be  trained 
for  the  work  they  are  to  do. 

Proper  environment  and  feeding  with  good  care  will  as  a 
rule  keep  horses  in  good  health.  If,  however,  they  should  get 
sick  or  contract  diseases  they  should  be  given  extra  care  and 
be  kept  warm.  In  addition  to  this,  the  ration  should  be  re- 
duced and  a  physic  administered.  Salts  or  raw  linseed  oil 
may  be  used  for  this  piu'pose.  If  such  treatment  does  not 
produce  desired  results,  a  qualified  veterinarian  should  be 
called  in. 

TYPES  OF  HORSES 

In  studying  different  types  or  kinds  of  horses  there  are  two 
that  are  of  outstanding  merit.  These  are  the  draft  type  and 
the  roadster  type. 

The  draft  type  of  horse  is  broad,  heavy  and  blocky.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  draft  horses  ranging  from  light  through 
medium  to  heavy  draft  types — from  1300  pounds  to  2000 
pounds.  A  heavy  draft  horse  weighs  1600  pounds  or  more. 
Other  things  being  equal,  namely,  quality,  conformation,  etc., 
the  heavier  a  draft  horse  the  more  it  is  worth.  The  price 
is  determined  by  the  market  centers  like  Chicago,  where 
horses  are  bought  in  large  numbers  for  city  work.  A  light 
draft  horse  may  not  bring  any  more  on  the  market  than  at  the 
rate  of  10  cents  a  pound  while  a  heavy  draft  horse  may  easily 
sell  for  as  much  as  20  cents  a  pound.  A  heavy  horse  is  worth 
more  because  it  can  pull  a  heavier  load. 

8 


114  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  kind  of  a  horse  a  farmer  should  adopt  for  his  farm  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  the  farm  and  the  farmer.  A  small 
hilly  farm  might  be  able  to  use  light  horses  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage but  as  a  rule  a  farmer  ought  to  grow  horses  to  sell 
as  well  as  to  use  on  his  own  farm.  And  the  larger  and  heavier 
they  are  the  more  they  will  bring  on  the  market. 

In  selecting  a  horse  either  for  work  or  for  breeding  purposes, 
it  should  be  selected  for  conformation,  quality,  soundness, 
ambition,  etc. 

DRAFT  HORSE  CONFORMATION 

The  main  points  to  be  given  special  consideration  are  length 
of  back,  length  and  position  of  croup,  width  of  body,  depth  of 
chest,  thickness  of  muscles,  slope  and  shape  of  shoulder,  depth 
of  body,  length  of  leg,  cleanness  of  limbs,  slope  of  pasterns, 
character  of  feet,  and  head  and  neck. 

Back. — The  back  of  a  horse,  that  is,  from  the  rear  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  front  of  the  hip  joints,  should  be  short.  The 
reason  for  this  is  to  give  it  strength.  The  horse  is  a  pulling 
machine  which  has  considerable  strain  on  the  back  and  the 
longer  the  back  is  the  more  likely  it  is  to  give  away.  A  long 
bridge  span  or  a  long  joist  will  not  carry  as  heavy  a  load  as  a 
short  one.  So  a  horse  with  a  short  back  is  stronger  than  a 
horse  with  a  long  back. 

While  the  back  should  be  short  to  assure  strength,  the 
underline  of  the  body  or  belly  should  be  comparatively  long. 
This  will  give  more  room  for  the  internal  organs  and  feed  and 
algo  prevent  the  hind  feet  from  coming  into  contact  with  the 
front  feet  while  the  horse  is  in  motion. 

Croup. — The  croup  is  the  upper  part  of  the  horse's  body 
from  the  points  of  the  hips  to  the  root  of  the  tail  and  the  pin 
bones.  This  should  be  well  muscled  and  not  too  steep. 
That  is  the  rear  end  should  not  be  too  low.  There  should  be 
a  nice  gradual  curve  from  the  back  up  over  the  croup  back  to 
the  tail.  The  horse  should  not  look  as  if  it  had  been  flattened 
out  at  this  part. 

The  croup  should  be  well  muscled  because  here  are  located 
some  of  the  principal  muscles  that  have  to  do  with  locomo- 
tion.    These  are  attached  by  means  of  cords  and  tendons  to 


HORSES  •  115 

the  bones  of  the  Hmbs.  As  the  muscle  contracts,  it  shortens 
and  causes  the  bone  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  pull.  The 
thicker,  therefore,  the  muscle  on  the  croup,  the  more  power 
can  be  exerted  by  the  horse. 

Width  of  Body. — The  reason  for  width  of  body  is  the  same 
as  for  thickness  of  muscles  on  the  croup.  It  gives  the  horse 
more  muscular  tissue  which  is  the  real  object  for  which  the 
horse  exists.  This  width  of  body  should,  of  course,  not  be 
in  the  form  of  fat  but  of  muscle  and  should  give  plenty  of 
room  on  the  inside  for  vital  organs  and  digestive  capacity. 
The  latter  can  easily  be  determined  by  noting  the  spring  of 
rib  or  levelness  and  distance  from  backbone  to  which  the  ribs 
extend,  also  the  width  of  the  underside  of  the  body  together 
with  thickness  of  body  wall. 

Constitution. — A  horse  must  also  have  a  good  constitution. 
This  is  indicated  by  depth  of  body  at  the  chest  together  with 
width  of  body  at  and  to  the  rear  of  the  shoulders.  This  is 
the  power  house  of  the  ''machine"  or  the  "factory  for  develop- 
ing energy"  and  no  factory  or  other  plant  can  do  more  work 
than  its  power  house  will  allow. 

This  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  that  a  spectator  may 
go  to  a  horse  race  and  be  able  in  a  large  measure  to  pick  the 
winners  by  their  depth  of  chest.  Of  course,  however,  the 
driver,  training,  experience,  etc.,  must  be  considered,  but  the 
constitution  of  the  horse  is  one  of  the  biggest  factors. 

Thickness  of  Muscles. — The  muscles  should  also  be  strong, 
heavy  and  well  developed  at  the  thighs,  quarters,  gaskins, 
arms  and  forearms. 

The  thigh  of  a  horse  corresponds  with  the  ham  of  a  hog. 
This  should  be  heavily  and  thickly  muscled  so  as  to  give 
power.  These  muscles  and  all  muscles  work  the  same  as  the 
muscles  of  the  croup  described  above.  They  are  attached  to 
the  object  they  are  intended  to  move  and  by  contraction  cause 
motion.  The  quarters  are  the  lower  back  and  inner  parts 
of  the  thighs.  Thus,  looking  at  a  horse  from  the  side  the 
thigh  should  be  broad,  well  extended  back  and  well  down 
toward  the  hock.  That  is,  the  horse  should  be  deep,  broad 
and  thick  at  the  thighs. 

Looking  at  the  horse  from  the  rear,  the  split  in  the  crotch 


116  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

should  not  come  high  but  the  muscHng  should  come  well  down 
both  on  the  outside  and  the  inside  of  the  thigh. 

The  gaskin  is  that  part  of  the  hind  leg  next  to  the  body 
or  immediately  below  the  thigh.  It  should  be  broad  (rear 
to  front)  and  heavily  muscled.  The  arm  of  the  horse  extends 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  back  and  down  to  the  elbow. 
The  latter  joint  is  in  the  front  flank  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
front  leg  and  above  the  underline  of  the  body.  The  forearm 
extends  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee.  The  whole  of  the  arm 
and  all  but  the  lower  part  of  the  forearm  should  be  heavih- 
muscled. 

The  arm  also  should  be  comparatively  short  and  as  nearly 
horizontal  as  can  be  had.  The  reason  for  this  will  appear 
under  the  discussion  of  pastern.  The  arm  should  be  long. 
A  long  arm  has  a  long  muscle  and  a  long  muscle  has  greater 
power  of  contraction  than  a  short  one. 

Shoulders. — The  shoulders  of  a  horse  have  a  bearing  sur- 
face for  the  collar.  This  bearing  surface  should  be  heavy 
enough,  or,  rather,  should  extend  out  far  enough  to  prevent 
the  collar  from  slipping  back  onto  the  body.  The  shoulder  of 
a  horse  serves  the  same  purpose  in  a  way  as  does  a  man's  head. 
A  certain  man,  asked,  what  was  the  purpose  of  one's  head, 
answered,  ''To  keep  the  collar  from  slipping  off." 

The  shoulder  should  also  be  smooth  and  even.  A  great 
many  horses  have  a  thickness  in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck 
and  shoulders.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  fit  the  collar.  Under 
such  conditions  the  upper  part  of  the  collar  is  wider  and  there 
is  more  motion  from  side  to  side  as  the  horse  walks.  This 
chafes  the  neck  and  makes  it  sore.  And  a  sore  neck  may 
lead  to  fistula,  which  is  a  very  serious  ailment.  Even  an 
ordinary  sore  neck  may  incapacitate  a  horse  for  work. 

The  shoulder  also  should  be  well  sloped.  That  is,  the  upper 
part  should  be  farther  back  than  the  lower  part.  If  a  plumb 
line  is  dropped  from  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  where  the 
collar  rests  it  should  fall  back  of  the  front  leg.  Sometimes 
this  slope  is  so  great  that  this  line  will  fall  to  the  rear  of  the 
leg  a  distance  about  equal  to  the  width  of  the  leg  at  the  forearm 
next  to  the  body. 

I'hc  purpose  of  this  slope  is  very  obvious.     In  hitching  a 


HOHSES  117 

liorse,  the  rear  end  of  the  trace  is  an  a  rule  attached  to  a  point 
that  is  consideral)ly  lower  than  its  point  of  attachment  at  the 
hame.  For  pulUng  a  heavy  load  the  hitch  is  as  low  and  as 
close  to  the  horse  as  possible.  This  gives  the  horse  a  chance 
to  lift.  And  his  lifting  power  is  his  greatest  power.  It  is 
constantly  being  developed  by  holding  up  or  lifting  its  body. 
With  this  in  view,  it  can  be  seen  that  with  a  proper  slope  to  the 
shoulders  the  pull  will  come  at  right  angles  to  the  front  sur- 
face of  the  shoulder  where  the  collar  rests.  This  is  the  way 
it  should  be.  When  the  shoulder  is  too  nearly  vertical  there 
is  too  much  pull  or  pressure  on  top  of  the  neck  which  lessens 
the  power  of  the  horse  and  also  causes  sore  neck.  Improper 
care  and  handling  will  also  cause  sore  neck. 

Length  of  Leg  and  Body  Depth. — It  is  frequentl}^  said  that 
a  draft  horse  should  be  ''low  set."  By  this  is  meant  that  the 
length  of  its  legs  should  not  be  too  great  for  the  depth  of  its 
bod}^  An  ''upstanding"  horse  is  one  whose  legs  are  rather 
long  and  whose  body  is  not  very  deep.  The  distance  from  the 
ground  or  floor  to  the  under  side  of  the  body  at  the  chest, 
which  is  the  length  of  leg,  should  be  equal  to  the  depth  of 
body  at  the  chest.  This  is  the  vertical  dimension  just  back 
of  the  front  legs.  A  horse  that  is  too  upstanding  cannot 
develop  as  much  power  as  it  should  and  a  horse  that  is  too 
close  to  the  ground  cannot  develop  enough  speed  in  either  the 
walk  or  the  trot. 

Cleanness  of  Limbs. — The  upper  part  of  the  limbs  should 
be  well  muscled,  but  from  the  hocks  and  knee  down  the  legs 
should  be  as  free  from  muscle  and  fat  as  possible.  The  hock 
is  the  joint  at  the  middle  of  the  hind  limb  and  the  knee  is  at 
the  middle  of  the  front  leg.  The  purpose-  or  function  of  these 
joints  is  to  give  flexibility  to  the  limbs.  The  leg  should  bend 
freely  at  these  points,  therefore,  should  be  as  free  from  fleshiness 
as  possible. 

These  parts,  however,  should  be  large  and  strong  but  should 
be  bony  and  tendonous.  The  tendons  from  the  muscles  above 
pass  down  here  and  these  together  with  the  bones  and  skin 
over  them  should  constitute  the  joints. 

The  hock  should  be  wide  from  rear  to  front  because  a  wide 
hock  is  stronger  than  a  narrow  one,  as  a  wide  joint  is  stronger 


118  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

than  a  narrow  one.  The  knee  should  also  be  quite  wide  in 
front  from  side  to  side. 

The  cannon  is  the  part  of  the  leg  from  knee  and  hock  to  the 
fetlock  joint.  This  is  the  joint  next  below  the  knee  and  hock. 
The  cannon  bone  is  the  front  part  of  the  cannon  and  the 
back  part  is  the  tendon  passing  to  the  foot.  This  tendon 
passes  over  pulley-like  arrangements  at  the  back  of  the  joints 
mentioned  above.  This  gives  width  and  strength  to  the 
cannon,  which  should  be  wide  and  of  even  width. 

The  length  of  limb  from  knee  and  hock  up,  as  already  said, 
should  be  long  so  as  to  give  lots  of  power  to  the  muscles  in 
this  part.  The  cannon  or  part  of  the  Umb  from  these  joints 
down  contains  no  muscles  and  therefore  should  be  short.  This 
is  simply  a  place  where  power  is  transmitted  from  the  parts 
above  to  the  parts  below,  therefore  it  should  be  short.  The 
difference  in  the  proportionate  length  of  these  two  parts  of  the 
leg  can  be  noticed  in  comparing  well-bred  horses  with  grade 
or  scrub  horses. 

The  Pastern. — The  pastern  of  a  horse  is  the  sloping  part  of 
the  limb  below  the  cannon.  This  should  be  strong  and 
should  have  considerable  slope.  Both  the  length  and  slope 
of  this  part  are  greater  in  horses  of  the  roadster  type  than  in 
those  of  the  draft  type. 

The  purpose  of  the  slope  in  the  pastern  is  to  give  the  horse 
elasticity  in  its  gait.  This  slope  acts  like  a  cushion  and  pre- 
vents jar  to  the  horse.  Imagine  a  man  walking  on  his  heels 
with  the  balls  of  his  feet  up.  He  would  soon  be  shaken  to  a 
''frazzle."  So  it  would  be  with  a  horse  if  all  the  bones  in 
the  limbs  were  set  on  end  in  a  straight  line.  The  horse  then 
would  have  no  value  whatever.  But  with  the  slope  of  the 
pastern  and  the  nearly  horizontal  position  of  the  bone  from 
the  elbow  to  shoulder,  together  with  the  slope  of  the  shoulder 
the  horse  has  an  elasticity  in  its  gait  that  makes  for  a  long 
life  of  ease,  pleasure  and  ability  in  doing  its  work. 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  farm  "plug''  and  a  well- 
bred  saddle  horse  as  a  means  of  obtaining  pleasure  and  com- 
fort in  riding?  It  is  very  great  and  the  difference  lies  very 
largely  in  the  difference  of  the  position  of  these  bones  and  the 
different  kind  of  training  these  horses  get. 


HORSES  119 

Feet. — A  horse  is  no  better  than  are  its  feet.  No  matter 
how  well-built  a  horse  is  from  the  feet  up,  if  the  feet  are  poor, 
the  horse  is  no  good.  It  must  have  its  feet  to  walk  upon  and 
if  it  cannot  use  its  feet  it  cannot  walk.  A  horse  that  cannot 
walk  cannot  be  used. 

The  feet  should  be  deep,  broad,  oval,  wide  at  heel,  of  hard 
and  tough  material,  and  of  fine  quality.  The  hoof  is  the  outer 
or  hard  part  of  the  foot  which  encases  and  protects  the  sensi- 
tive parts  within.     It  also  gives  a  durable  surface. 

The  hoof  should  be  of  good  size  and  as  nearly  oval  as  can 
be  had.  The  heel  should  be  wide  and  high  but  not  so  high  as 
the  front  part  of  the  hoof.  The  entire  hoof  or  foot  from  top 
to  bottom  should  be  high  or  deep.  The  bone  is  in  the  center 
and  with  a  deep  foot  there  is  more  room  for  attachment  be- 
tween bone  and  hoof.     This  makes  a  stronger  foot. 

If  the  foot  is  shallow,  the  horse  is  said  to  be  flat-footed  and 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  bone  to  push  through  and  assume 
part  of  the  pressure  on  its  end.  This  causes  tenderness  and 
pain.     A  horse  with  such  feet  cannot  do  much  w^ork. 

The  sole  of  the  foot  should  be  concave  or  hollow,  making 
the  center  higher  than  the  outside.  This  gives  it  more 
strength,  just  as  a  concrete  arch  is  stronger  than  a  flat  slab 
of  concrete.  A  dark-colored  hoof  also  is  harder  and  will 
wear  better  than  a  white  one. 

The  frog  of  the  foot  is  the  projection  extending  down  from 
the  rear  middle  part  of  the  sole.  This  should  never  be  cut 
off  or  disturbed.  It  acts  as  a  cushion  and  aids  the  slope  of 
the  pastern  and  other  bones  to  give  elasticity  as  the  foot  comes 
into  contact  with  the  earth  or  road  bed  in  traveling.  The 
frog  should  be  large  and  well  developed. 

Head  and  Neck. — ^The  head  of  a  horse  should  be  lean  with 
capacity  for  brains  and  should  show  much  intelligence.  The 
neck  of  a  draft  horse  should  be  thick  and  well  developed  with 
considerable  arch  or  crest;  that  is,  a  fullness  or  curvature  on 
the  upper  side.  This  gives  added  weight  to  the  front  end  of 
the  horse. 

This  added  weight  in  front  is  very  important  because  as  the 
horse  pulls  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  front  part  to  lift  up. 
This  is  true   because  the  attachment  of  traces  to  hames  is 


120 


LIVESTOCK    OX    THE    FARM 


considerably  above  the  earth  where  the  feet  rest  and  because 
most  of  the  power  for  pulUng  is  developed  in  the  hind  quarter. 
The  horse  is  really  a  pushing  machine.  It  pushes  itself  along 
with  its  hind  legs.  Thus,  by  increasing  the  weight  of  the  front 
end  of  the  horse  it  can  draw  a  heavier  load.  A  well-developed 
front  quarter  also  aids  in  this. 

It  is  said  that  if  a  team  pulling  a  load  of  grain  in  sacks  up 
a  hill,  becomes  stalled,  it  can  be  helped  out  by  means  of  this 


12. — At  easp.     A  horse  of  the  roadster  type. 


principle.  If  some  of  the  sacks  of  grain  are  taken  from  the 
wagon  and  put  on  the  backs  of  the  horses  they  can  take  th(^ 
load  up.  This  gives  added  weight  to  the  front  end  of  the  body 
and  prevents  it  from  lifting  up. 

THE   ROADSTER   TYPE 

Everything  that  has  been  said  above  about  the  draft  horse 
is  true  of  the  roadster,  except  as  to  the  comparative  length 
of  the  legs,  width  of  body,  and  crest  on  neck. 

Size  and  Weight. — In  size,  the  roadster  type  of  horse  is 
almost  the  equal  of  the  draft  type  but  it  is  much  lighter. 


HORSES 


121 


By  size  is  meant  largely  height  but  weight  includes  total 
amount  of  matter.  These  are  two  entirely  different  things. 
A  draft  horse  may  measure  16  to  18  hands  (1  hand  equals 
4  inches)  high  and  a  roadster  horse  from  15  to  17  hands.  But 
a  draft  horse  weighs  from  1600  to  2000  pounds  while  a  roadster 
weighs  only  from  900  to  1200  pounds.  One  of  the  principal 
differences  between  the  two  types  of  horses  then  is  their 
width. 


Fig.  13. — Ready  for  action.      Tho  same  roadstor  type  horse  as  above. 

The  roadster  type  of  horse  is  built  to  develop  relatively 
more  speed  and  less  pulling  power  than  the  draft  horse.  To 
get  this,  a  greater  relative  length  of  leg  is  needed.  The 
greyhound  is  one  of  the  speediest  of  domestic  animals,  and 
at  the  same  time  is  one  of  the  longest  legged.  The  length  of 
leg  in  the  roadster  horse  is  more  than  the  depth  of  its  body. 

The  pastern  in  the  roadster  is  also  longer  and  has  more  slope 
than  in  the  draft  horse.  This  gives  more  elasticity  which  is 
needed.  The  roadster's  feet  come  down  harder  and  oftener 
than  those  of  the  draft  horse. 

The  roadster  is  not  so  wide  in  body  nor  so  heavy  in  neck 
because  it  does  not  need  to  pull  such  heavy  loads.  Further- 
more, a  wide-bodied  horse  cannot  travel  so  fast  or  economic- 


122 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


ally  as  a  narrower  one.  Everyone  knows  that  a  chicken 
could  beat  a  duck  in  a  race.  The  legs  of  a  duck  are  farther 
apart  and  it  goes  with  a  wabbly  motion.  With  the  legs  set 
so  far  apart  the  body  must  be  thrown  over  so  as  to  maintain 
the  balance  in  changing  from  one  foot  to  another.  This 
takes  time  and  energy.  In  order  to  maintain  its  constitution, 
the  roadster,  therefore,  must  have  the  deeper  chest. 

Walk,  Trot  and  Pace. — When  a  horse  walks,  it  lifts  up  and 
sets  down  its  feet  in  regular  order  and  with  a  uniform  beat. 


Fig.  14. — A  fceam  of  heavy  roadsters. 

That  is,  there  is  the  same  time  between  the  impact  with  the 
ground  between  every  two  strokes.  Starting  with  the  right 
front  foot  first  the  left  hind  foot  comes  up  second  in  the 
walk  then  the  left  front  foot  and  finally  the  right  hind  foot. 
When  the  horse  trots,  the  diagonal  feet  come  up  and  are 
put  down  at  about  the  same  time.  That  is,  the  right  front 
and  left  hind  feet  go  together  and  vice  versa.  In  both  of  these 
motions  the  feet  should  be  lifted  from  the  ground  with  a 
snap,  and  with  good  flexibility  at  knee  and  hock.  The  feet 
should  come  up  so  that  the  sole  is  plainly  visible  from  the  rear. 


HORSES  123 

It  should  then  be  carried  upward  and  forward  so  that  it  comes 
well  above  the  ground,  and  then  be  set  down,  not  toe  first 
or  heel  first,  but  flat. 

A  pacer  is  a  horse  that  moves  both  legs  on  one  side  forward 
at  the  same  time.  This  makes  it  necessary  for  the  horse  to 
wabble  a  little  but  at  the  same  time  it  saves  motion  in  its 
legs.  These  are  not  bent  so  much.  To  many  people  the 
pace  is  not  agreeable  but  it  is  just  as  fast  a  gait  and  possibly 
a  trifle  faster  than  the  trot.  Since  the  horse,  however,  does 
not  lift  its  feet  so  high  and  goes  rather  stiff-legged  it  is  not 
so  good  a  gait  for  rough  roads  or  when  there  is  sand  or  snow 
on  the  roads.  Sometimes  horses  pace  on  account  of  poor 
conformation.  The  croup  may  be  too  steep  or  the  underline 
too  short.  Under  such  conditions  the  horse  will  forge  (hit 
front  foot  with  hind  foot)  when  trotting.  This  is  prevented 
by  pacing. 

Horses  of  all  kinds  but  especially  of  the  roadster  type  should 
be  strong  in  nervous  temperament.  Their  work  sometimes 
calls  for  extraordinary  exertion  or  long  endurance.  Also, 
their  action  should  be  quick,  snappy  and  vigorous.  The  only 
way  these  things  can  be  obtained  is  by  a  strong,  well-developed 
nervous  organization, 

PONIES 

Ponies  are  simply"  small  horses,  and  they  are  as  a  rule  built 
more  like  a  draft  horse  than  a  roadster.  There  are  various 
breeds  and  kinds  of  ponies  ranging  all  the  way  from  small 
horses  of  900  pounds  to  the  small  Shetland  pony,  weighing 
about  300  pounds.  There  is  even  a  great  variation  in  Shet- 
lands  in  size.  Some  are  much  smaller  than  others.  The 
small  ones  as  a  rule  are  preferable. 

Origin. — The  Shetland  pony  comes  from  the  Shetland 
Islands.  These  are  comparatively  small  islands  in  the  cold 
regions  north  -of  Scotland.  The  soil  there  is  not  of  the  best. 
On  account  of  these  facts,  the  horses  simply  do  not  grow  large 
and  are  called  ponies.  With  good  feeding  and  care,  the 
Shetland  pony  grows  larger.  But  on  account  of  the  influence 
of  ancestors,  which  is  called  breeding,  it  takes  time  to  make 


]24  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

large  changes.  And  it  would  take  a  long  time  to  develop 
a  heavy  draft  horse  from  a  Shetland  pony. 

Object  of. — Small  horses  can  be  used  for  light  work,  as  for 
riding  and  driving,  especially  on  the  paved  streets  of  a  city. 
If  a  small  horse  can  do  one's  work,  there  is  considerable 
saving  in  feed  and  in  barn  room. 

The  child  and  the  pony  are  especially  well  adapted  to  each 
other.  The  pony  is  small  and  can  be  handled  better  by  the 
child,  and  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of  injuries  to  a  child 
by  a  pony  as  by  a  horse. 

COACH  AND  OTHER  HORSES 

Other  types  of  horses  range  between  the  roadster  and  the 
draft  horse.  Foremost  among  these  is  the  coach  horse.  This 
is  about  midway  between  the  roadster  and  the  draft  horse 
and  is  about  the  same  height  as  a  roadster  type,  but  it  is  of  a 
heavier  build.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  not  so  heavily  built  as 
a  draft  horse. 

The  coach  horse  is  especially  well  developed  in  knee  and 
hock  action.  It  lifts  its  feet  high  so  as  to  give  it  more  style. 
This  kind  of  a  horse  is  used  especially  for  pleasure  driving  in 
the  parks  of  large  cities.  There  is  a  gradual  variation,  indeed, 
in  horses,  from  the  smallest  pony  to  the  heaviest  draft  horse. 
But  the  pony,  the  roadster,  the  coach  horse  and  the  heavy 
draft  horse  are  the  outstanding  types. 

MULES 

A  mule  is  a  cross  between  a  Jack  and  a  mare.  It  is  a  pure 
hybrid  and  will  not  breed.  It  is  characterized  by  having  long 
ears,  small  feet,  a  rather  narrow  body,  and  not  so  much  hair 
on  its  tail  as  a  horse. 

The  Jack  is  the  male  of  the  ass  family.  The  female  of 
this  family  is  called  a  jennet.  This  family  of  the  horse  tribe 
is  a  native  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  beast  of  burden  at  the 
time  of  Christ  was  the  ass. 

During  recent  years,  mules  have  sold  for  more  money  than 
horses.  This  is  peculiarly  interesting  because  the  mule  is 
primarily  a  work  animal  and  is  not  much  used  for  pleasure 
driving.     But  as  the  mule  does  not  breed,  it  costs  more  to 


HORSES  125 

produce  liim.  Besides  the  mule  is  considered  to  be  a  better 
work  animal  than  the  horse.  It  is  not  built  so  much  for  looks 
as  for  work.  It  does  not  have  so  much  of  a  covering  of  fat 
and  is  not  so  smooth  or  well  rounded.  It  is  made  more  for 
business. 

The  mule  is  not  so  subject  to  disease,  sickness  and  injury. 
It  will  withstand  rou^h  treatment  better  than  the  horse.  It 
also  seems  to  know  how  to  keep  itself  in  better  condition,  in 
its  eating  and  drinking. 

The  mule,  again,  is  better  able  to  withstand  hot  weather 
than  is  the  horse,  which  is  a  big  advantage  because  much  of 
the  hard  work  of  the  farm  comes  during  the  hot  part  of  the 
season.  This  factor  is  not  of  such  importance  in  the  north 
but  is  of  great  importance  in  all  southern  countries. 

BREEDS  OF  HEAVY  HORSES 

There  are  different  breeds  of  horses  in  most  of  the  different 
types. 

Grades. — Perhaps  the  most  common  of  all  horses  is  the 
grade  horse.  Grade  horses,  sired  by  good  pure-bred  stallions 
out  of  sound  mares,  with  the  desirable  characteristics  out- 
lined above,  are  as  good  for  work  on  the  farm  as  are  pure- 
bred horses.  The  main  thing  in  the  farm  work  horse  is  to  get 
size,  weight,  quality  and  conformation.  If  one  is  able  finan- 
cially to  have  pure  breds,  so  much  the  better.  He  may  be  able 
to  sell  the  offspring  from  these  at  an  advanced  price.  But 
even  with  pure  breds  it  is  important  that  they  be  selected  for 
size,  weight,  quality  and  conformation.  Of  course,  grade 
mares  should  always  be  bred  to  good  stallions,  and,  preferably, 
to  good  sound  pure-bred  stallions. 

Percheron. — The  Percheron  breed  of  horses  originated  in 
France  and  is  one  of  the  most  popular  breeds  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time.  This  breed  presents  all  the 
colors,  but  blacks  and  greys  are  in  the  majority. 

The  Percheron  is  a  draft  horse  of  good  size,  quahty  and 
general  conformation.  It  has  good  action  both  in  walking 
and  in  trotting.  They  are  likely  to  be  weak  in  the  croup  and 
cannons.     The  rear  end  of  the  croup  is  too  low  and  the  upper 


126 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


1  iu.   15. — Porcheron  marc,  working  condition. 


Fig.  16. — Aged  Clydesdale  stallion,   working  condition.     Note  muscling  of 
breast  and  slope  of  shoulder. 


HORSES 


127 


part  of  the  cannons  are  frequently  too  narrow  from  rear  to 
front.     Such  a  leg  is  not  as  strong  as  it  should  be. 

Clydesdale. — The  Clydesdale  comes  from  Scotland.  It 
is  also  of  various  colors  with  chestnut  or  sorrel  and  black  pre- 
dominating. This  horse  is  an  extra  high  quality  horse  with 
good  conformation  and  'good  action.  It  is  also  very  good  in 
feet.     The  weak  point  of  this  breed  is  its  lack  of  internal 


Fig.  17. — Grade  Clydesdale  mare.     Good  croup  but  straight  shoulder, 
trained  for  show. 


Not 


capacity,  and,  sometimes  of  size.  It  is,  however,  strong  in 
the  cannons  and  strong  in  the  croup. 

The  Clydesdale  is  characterized  by  long  hair  at  the  rear 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  cannon  and  fetlock.  This,  it  is  main- 
tained in  Scotland,  is  an  indication  of  good  quahty.  In  wet 
and  muddy  countries,  however,  this  is  a  handicap  as  the  hair 
gathers  mud  and  dirt,  but  if  this  would  induce  better  care  of 
the  feet  it  might  be  a  good  thing. 

Shire. — The  Shire  is  an  English  draft  horse  of  the  heavy 
type.     It  looks,  and  is  built,  much  like  the  Clydesdale  but  is 


128 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


larger  and  more  sluggish.  The  vShire  also  is  characterized  by 
having  rather  poor  feet.  It  is  somewhat  flat-footed.  As  a 
heavy  draft  horse  for  city  draying  the  shire  is  very  popular. 

Being  somewhat  slow  and  sluggish,  the  Shire  is  not  in  so 
much  demand  on  the  farms  of  the  United  States.  The  ability 
of  a  draft  horse  to  go  rapidly  at  a  walk  is  a  very  important 


Fig.  18.— Shit 


Show    condition.      (Hildebrand.) 


factor  in  farm  work.     The  value  of  this  is  self-evident.     Both 
the  Clydesdale  and  the  Percheron  are  good  in  this  respect. 

Belgian. — The  Belgian  horse  comes  from  Belgium.  It  is 
also  a  heavy  draft  horse.  It  is  characterized  especially  by 
its  compactness  of  build  and  heavy  body.  But  its  legs  are 
somewhat  light  and  the  feet  not  very  good.  Roans  and  bays 
are  the  principal  colors.  It  is  a  good  horse  of  the  heavy  draft 
type. 


HORSES 
BREEDS  OF  LIGHT  HORSES 


129 


Among  light  horses  there  are  several  breeds  of  importance. 
Many  of  these  trace  their  origin  to  the  Arabian  horse.  This  is 
a  horse  of  extraordinaiy  enchirance  and  from  the  standpoint 
of  quality  and  confoi-mation  is  of  the  very  best.  It  comes 
largely  from  the  Arabian  desert. 


Fig.  19. — Belgian    stallion.     Show    condition.      (Hildebrand.) 

Thoroughbred. — The  thoroughbred  is  a  breed  of  horses 
coming  from  England.  It  is  the  extreme  of  the  roadster  horse 
type,  being  quite  leggy  and  ''high-strung"  nervously.  The 
breed  was  made  to  be  used  in  running  races.  Nearly  every- 
one is  familiar  with  such  races.  They  are  run  with  a  jockey 
riding  the  horse.  This  used  to  be  the  popular  sort  of  a  horse 
race  in  England.     In  the  United  States  as  a  rule  one  or  two 

9 


130  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

of  such  events  are  '' tacked  on"  to  a  race  meet  composed 
primarily  of  trotting  and  pacing  races,  in  which  the  horses  are 
hitched  to  sulkies. 

The  gait  of  a  thoroughbred  in  a  race  is  the  gallop.  In  this 
one  front  foot  is  raised  first  and  then  the  other  in  quick 
succession,  and,  following  this,  the  hind  feet  in  a  similar 
manner.  Part  of  the  time  all  four  feet  are  off  the  ground  at 
the  same  time. 

The  thoroughbred  breed  was  made  by  crosses  of  the  Arabian 
on  the  light  horses  of  England,  several  centuries  ago.  This 
horse  is  also  used  at  present  for  breeding  other  horses  of  the 
light  harness  type,  as  for  instance,  the  American  trotter. 

The  word  thoroughbred  is  very  often  misused.  It  is  used 
in  place  of  the  word  pure  bred.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  thoroughbred  is  the  English  running  horse. 

American  Trotter. — The  American  trotter  is  a  product  of 
the  United  States.  It  was  bred  largely  from  the  English 
thoroughbred  and  American  and  other  light  horses.  The 
type  of  this  horse  in  its  ideal  form  is  as  described  previously 
in  the  roadster  type.  This  horse  is  used  for  the  trotting  race 
and  for  general  road  work  for  driving  purposes. 

The  saddle  horse  is  the  same  in  type  and  appearance  as 
the  trotter  but  is  trained  to  saddle  work.  These  are  bred 
to  have  long  sloping  pasterns  and  an  easy  gait.  They  are 
then  trained  to  go  easy  under  the  saddle. 

Saddle  horses  have  several  gaits.  Their  walk  and  trot  are 
the  same  as  for  all  horses  but  very  easy  so  as  not  to  jar  the 
rider.  The  canter  is  a  modified  gallop.  This  has  been 
softened  down  so  as  not  to  be  so  jerky.  The  horse  also  does 
not  throw  itself  so  much  but  goes  more  like  a  rocking  horse. 
There  is  not  so  much  time  from  the  instant  the  hind  feet  leave 
the  ground  till  the  front  ones  come  down.  And  these  do  not 
come  down  so  hard.  There  are  also  several  other  easy  gaits 
to  which  these  horses  may  be  trained. 

Hackney. — The  hackney  is  a  good  representative  of  the 
coach  type,  already  mentioned.  It  is  an  English-bred  horse 
but  was  bred  for  many  years  along  a  uniform  line  and  accord- 
ing to  a  given  ideal.  It  is  therefore  a  horse  that  will  breed 
true  to  tyi)e.     l*'xtreme  variations  have  been  largely  dimin- 


HORSES 


131 


ished  by  this  mclhocl  of  breeding.  The  hackney  is  also  a 
horse  that  is  noted  for  its  style,  quality  and  conformation. 
It  is  a  well-made  horse  and  is  especially  sound. 

There   are   several   other   breeds   of   coach   horses   as   the 
Cleveland  bay,  another  English  horse,  the  French  coach  horse, 


Fig.  20. — Hackney  stallion.     Sh^ 

and  the  German  coach  horse, 
uniform  in  their  offspring. 


(liti 


.iid  w 


These,  however,  are  not  so 


HORSE    BREEDING 

Horse  breeding  does  not  differ  from  breeding  of  other 
animals.  The  instructions  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  breed- 
ing should  be  followed.  Horses  should  be  selected  and  mated 
for  their  offspring  in  accordance  with  the  idea  one  has  in  mind 


132  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

for  his  ideal.  If  heavy  horses  are  to  be  produced,  heavy  horses 
must  be  mated.  If  roadster  horses  are  wanted,  coach  horses 
cannot  be  mated.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  like 
produces  like  but  at  the  same  time  there  is  considerable  varia- 
tion so  that  like  does  not  absolutely  produce  like. 

The  Brood  Mare. — The  brood  mare  should  be  as  good  as 
possibly  can  be  had.  She  should  at  all  times  be  well  exer- 
cised. There  is  no  better  place  to  produce  colts  than  on  a 
small  farm  where  the  mares  do  the  regular  farm  work.  They 
should  be  handled  carefully,  however,  so  they  do  not  become 
injured.  Heavy  pulling,  rough  work  and  backing  heavy  loads 
should  be  avoided  while  the  mare  is  in  foal.  Backing  a  load 
is  unnatural  work  and  brings  undue  strain  upon  the  abdominal 
muscles.     This  may  cause  premature  discharge  of  the  foetus. 

Mares  in  foal  can  be  kept  at  light  work  right  up  to  the  time 
the  colt  is  born.  At  foaling  time  it  is  best  to  have  the  mare 
in  a  box  stall  and  have  an  attendant  with  her.  After  the  colt 
is  born  the  navel  cord  should  be  firmly  tied  with  a  strong  string 
about  an  inch  from  the  body  of  the  colt  and  then  cut  off  about 
an  inch  below  the  point  where  it  is  tied.  After  cutting  the 
navel  cord  it  (the  part  left  on  the  body  of  the  colt)  should  be 
bathed  in  some  disinfectant;  for  instance,  a  3  to  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  carbolic  acid.  If  the  navel  cord  is  not  disinfected 
there  is  danger  of  infection,  which  has  killed  many  a  good  colt. 
The  attention  just  mentioned  is  about  all  that  need  be  given 
except  in  the  case  of  a  weak  colt,  which  should  be  helped  onto 
its  feet  to  get  its  first  meal. 

K  a  mare  is  in  good  condition  she  will  as  a  rule  come  in  heat 
about  nine  days  after  the  colt  is  born.  After  this  and  at  other 
times  the  periods  of  heat  are  about  three  weeks  apart.  But 
mares  do  not  always  come  in  heat  in  winter.  The  spring  of 
the  year  is  the  natural  time.  A  colt  is  carried  about  eleven 
months  by  its  dam.     This  is  the  period  of  gestation. 

After  foaling  the  mare  should  be  allowed  to  spend  her  time 
with  the  colt  for  a  few  weeks  and  then  she  may  be  put  to  work 
again.  The  colt  may  be  allowed  to  follow  the  mare  in  light 
work  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  walk  all  day  on  a  i"oad  or  in 
a  soft  field  until  it  is  well  able  to  do  so.  A  better  practice  is 
to  keep  the  colt  in  a  box  stall  and  return  the  mare  as  she  comes 


HORSES  133 

from  work.  The  mare,  however,  should  not  be  worked  too 
hard.  She  should  not  become  very  warm  from  her  work. 
And  when  she  comes  in  from  work  with  an  udder  full  of  milk 
part  of  this  should  be  milked  out  before  she  is  turned  in  with 
the  colt. 

The  Colt. — A  colt  may  be  weaned  when  it  is  from  four  to 
six  months  old  and  then  should  be  fed  as  all  young  animals 
should  be  fed.  It  is  a  growing  animal,  so  should  have  alfalfa, 
clover,  or  pea  hay,  wheat  bran  or  oil  meal  for  protein.  Then  it 
should  have  oats  or  oats  and  corn  mixed  as  a  concentrate  with 
all  the  water  it  needs  and  plenty  of  salt  and  other  minerals. 
Exercise  should  not  be  forgotten  at  this  time  as  this  is  one  of 
the  most  important  factors  in  the  life  of  the  colt.  A  good 
pasture  makes  excellent  feed. 

The  horse  colts,  except  such  pure  breds  as  may  be  reserved 
for  breeding  purposes,  are  as  a  rule  castrated  when  they  are 
one  or  two  years  old.  If  castrated  at  the  younger  age,  they 
give  less  trouble  in  handling  and  there  is  less  loss  in  case  one 
should  die  as  a  result  of  the  operation.  But  if  they  are  allowed 
to  reach  the  age  of  two  years  before  castration  they  are  thought 
to  develop  a  little  more  w^eight  in  the  front  quarter  and  develop 
more  '^life"  and  ambition. 

The  Sire. — The  stallion  that  is  selected  to  be  used  upon  one's 
mares  should  be  of  the  very  best.  He  should  possess  all  the 
good  points  to  the  highest  degree  and  should  be  entirely  free 
from  all  unsoundness,  such  defects  as  spavin,  ringbone,  curb, 
sidebones,  defective  eyes,  etc.  They  are  defects  that  are 
likely  to  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring. 

Blemishes  are  simply  scars  such  as  wire  cuts  that  may  mar 
the  looks  of  a  horse  or  injure  his  capacity  for  work,  but  they 
are  not  transmissible  characteristics. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CATTLE 

Cattle  are  cloven-hoofed,  four-legged  animals  of  the  species 
of  ruminants.  They  are  of  the  bovine  family.  Ruminants 
eat  a  large  proportion  of  coarse  feeds  such  as  grass,  hay,  corn 
fodder.  These,  being  difficult  to  digest,  are  chewed  and 
moistened  enough  to  be  swallowed  and  then  are  stored  in  the 
paunch,  a  large  compartment  of  the  stomach  made  for  the 
purpose.  Here  the  feeds,  being  mixed  with  saliva  from  the 
mouth,  are  softened  and  partly  acted  upon  by  the  digestive 
enzymes.  After  the  cow  has  swallowed  enough  she  rests  from 
external  labors,  and,  bringing  the  swallowed  feed  from  the 
paunch  back  to  the  mouth  little  by  little  she  chews  or  masti- 
cates it  thoroughly,  and  then  reswallows  it.  This  time  it 
goes  to  the  true  stomach  where  digestion  is  completed. 

Because  of  all  this,  these  animals  are  able  to  eat  and  make 
good  use  of  feeds  that  man  and  even  other  animals  could  not 
use.  High-priced  animal  foods  for  man  may  be  produced, 
therefore,  on  comparatively  cheap  feeds. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  as  to  proper  breeding. 
That  is,  the  cattle  should  be  descended  from  the  right  kind  of 
ancestors,  and  they  should  be  developed  under  an  environ- 
ment and  fed  upon  feeds  so  as  to  produce  health,  vigor  and 
vitality.  The  type  of  animals,  desired  should  also  be  well 
kept  in  mind. 

The  environment  should  at  all  times  allow  plenty  of  exer- 
cise and  the  feed  should  contain  enough  protein,  mineral  matter 
and  water  for  normal  development.  A  stunted  animal  or 
one  that  has  suffered  for  the  want  of  food  should  be  considered 
much  as  a  worn-out  automobile. 

Length  of  Body. — The  cow  should  always  be  long  in  the 
body;  long  both  in  the  middle  and  in  the  hind  quarters.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  all  the  high-priced  meat  is  along  the  upper 

134 


CATTLE  135 

part  of  the  sides  and  the  back  of  the  carcass  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  rear  end.  The  long  conformation  also  gives  more  room 
for  generative  organs  and  for  feed. 

Feeding. — Cattle  are  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  coarse  feeds 
or  roughages,  but  improved  cattle  are  not  like  natives  and 
must  be  fed  some  concentrates  or  grains  if  they  are  to  do  well. 
The  young  animals  also,  as  the  calves  and  yearlings,  must 
have  more  protein  for  growth  than  the  older  ones.  Variety 
in  a  ration,  palatability  of  feeds  and  regularity  in  feeding  must 
all  be  given  due  consideration. 

Breeding. — The  principles  of  breeding  discussed  previously 
should  be  observed  in  cattle  breeding.  The  length  of  time 
a  cow  carries  her  calf,  or  the  period  of  gestation,  is  about 
nine  and  one-third  months.  The  cow  comes  in  heat  every 
three  weeks  when  not  in  calf,  except  the  first  few  weeks  after 
calving. 

At  calving  time  a  cow  should  be  in  good  condition  but  im- 
mediately before  calving  her  ration  should  be  reduced  and  she 
should  be  brought  back  to  feed  gradually  after  calving.  At 
this  time,  also,  she  should  be  kept  warm  and  comfortable. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  DAIRY  COW 

The  dairy  cow  is  an  animal  machine  for  making  milk.  This 
machine  takes  in  feeds  hke  hay,  grass,  and  grain.  From 
these  she  extracts  the  nutrients,  protein,  carbohydrates,  and 
fat  or  ether  extract,  and  also  some  mineral  matter  and  water. 
Mineral  matter  and  water  are  also  taken  in  other  forms  than  reg- 
ular feeds.  All  of  these  materials,  and  perhaps  some  others 
which  have  thus  far  avoided  detection,  but  are  a  part  of  the 
feeds  eaten,  are  taken  to  the  living  cells  of  the  animal  body 
where  they  are  put  together  in  the  form  of  milk.  Thus,  milk- 
making  is  a  function  of  the  living  animal  cell.  Manufacturers 
have  thus  far  not  succeeded  in  making  milk  by  artificial  means. 

Milk. — Milk  is  a  combination  of  water,  fat,  casein,  albumin 
and  salts.  It  contains  as  a  rule  from  3  to  7  per  cent,  of  fat. 
The  amount  of  protein  as  a  rule  (casein  and  albumin)  is  a 
little  smaller  than  the  amount  of  fat  present.  Where  milk 
is  run  through  a  separator  or  is  skimmed  the  fat  and  some  of 
the  milk  serum  are  taken  away  from  the  rest  of  the  serum. 
Thus,  cream  contains  25  per  cent,  of  fat,  more  or  less  according 
to  the  gauging  of  the  machine. 

Butter. — Butter  is  the  fat  of  the  milk  with  a  little  salt  and 
water  in  it.  To  make  butter  the  cream  is  allowed  to  ripen 
or  to  sour  a  little.  This  forms  an  acid  which  acts  upon  the 
casein  in  the  milk  serum  in  such  manner  as  to  free  the  fat 
globules  to  some  extent.  The  ripened  cream  is  put  into  a 
churn  and  tumbled  around  to  make  the  fat  globules  come  into 
contact  with  one  another  and  stick  together.  When  enough 
stick  together,  the  mass  separates  from  the  milk  serum.  The 
latter  is  then  known  as  butter  milk.  Thus,  butter  forms  like  rain . 
When  it  rains  the  fine  dew  drops  come  together  to  form  rain 
drops.  When  butter  is  made  the  fine  fat  globules  of  the  milk 
or  cream  are  pounded  together  into  larger  grains  and  then 
there  is  butter. 

130 


THE    DAIRY    COW  137 

Cheese. — Cheese  is  also  made  from  milk  but  this  is  made 
largely  of  the  protein  of  milk  (casein  and  albumin).  This 
material  is  coagulated  or  solidified  by  heat  and  an  enzyme 
or  acid.  As  this  solidifies  it  also  incorporates  some  of  the  fat. 
Thus,  a  full  cream  cheese  which  is  made  from  whole  milk  is 
better  than  cheese  made  from  skim  milk. 

Constancy  of  Milk. — An  interesting  thing  about  the  com- 
position of  milk  is  that  the  milk  from  a  given  cow  is  of  con- 
stant composition.  That  is,  a  cow  giving  4  per  cent,  milk 
will  give  about  4  per  cent,  milk  all  the  time.  The  same  is 
true  of  a  cow  giving  milk  of  any  other  percentage  of  fat.  This 
is  a  very  important  fact  to  remember  when  it  comes  to  feeding 
a  cow. 

FEEDING  COWS 

Protein. — If  a  cow  gives  100  pounds  of  milk  a  day — and 
there  are  a  few  such  cows  in  the  country — and  this  milk  is 
4  per  cent,  butter  fat,  she  will  give  nearly  4  pounds  of  protein 
each  day.  Under  what  conditions,  then,  will  this  cow 
be  able  to  make  the  100  pounds  of  milk  per  day?  Only 
when  she  is  getting  the  required  amount  of  protein  in  her 
feed;  that  is,  4  pounds,  and  enough  in  addition  to  this  for 
maintenance. 

It  is  very  plain,  therefore,  that  if  a  cow  is  to  make  100 
pounds  of  milk  a  day  she  must  have  in  her  daily  ration  about 
4>2  pounds  of  protein.  What  would  happen  if  this  amount  of 
protein  were  reduced  to  2K  pounds,  or  if  2  pounds  were  taken 
away?  She  could  then  make  only  50  pounds  of  milk  per 
day.  She  would  not  drop  down  suddenly  from  100  to  50 
pounds  of  milk  because  she  would  use  some  protein  from  her 
body.  But  this  would  gradually  weaken  her  and  injure  the 
milk-making  machine.  Nothing  else  takes  the  place  of 
protein.  This  simply  emphasizes  the  importance  of  feeding 
the  proper  amount  of  protein  to  milk  giving  cows. 

The  principal  protein  feeds,  as  shown  previously,  are  clover, 
alfalfa,  pea  hay,  peas,  flax,  wheat,  bran,  oil  meal  and  cotton- 
seed meal.  One  of  these  legumes,  either  green  or  in  the  form 
of  hay  should  constitute  at  least  one-half  of  the  roughage  part 
of  the  ration  of  a  dairy  cow,  and  one  of  the  protein  concen- 


138  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

trates  should  make  up  from  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  the  con- 
centrate part  of  the  ration. 

Water. — One  hundred  pounds  of  milk  contains  about  87 
pounds  of  water.  Besides  the  water  needed  to  supply  this, 
the  cow  needs  an  additional  supply  to  aid  digestion,  circula- 
tion, perspiration  and  heat  regulation.  It  has  been  shown  by 
investigation  that  for  every  pound  of  milk  a  cow  gives  she 
needs  3  or  4  pounds  of  water.  The  cow  giving  100  pounds 
of  milk  per  day  then  requires  about  400  pounds  or  1  barrel 
of  water  each  day.  Suppose  then,  that  on  account  of  cold 
weather,  cold  water  or  inaccessibility  to  water  this  much  is 
not  obtained.  What  is  going  to  happen?  Well,  the  machine 
must  be  operated  first.  And  then  if  there  is  any  water  left 
milk  can  be  made.  And  no  milk  can  be  made  without  water. 
Milk  is  always  of  a  definite  composition.  If  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  is  reduced  by  one-third,  the  amount  of  milk 
may  be  reduced  by  two-thirds. 

The  importance  of  an  abundant  and  constant  supply  of 
water  is,  therefore,  well  recognized.  Furthermore,  there  is  no 
way  for  the  cow  to  store  much  water  in  her  body  for  future  use. 
Consequently,  she  must  have  water  regularly  and  constantly. 

In  a  cold  country,  it  is  advisable  to  warm  the  water  for  the 
cows,  but  if  well  water  is  used  fresh  before  it  gets  too  cold  and 
is  given  to  cows  in  a  warm  barn  there  may  be  no  necessity  for 
warming  it.  The  frequency  of  watering  also  is  of  considerable 
importance.  The  oftener  a  cow  drinks  the  colder  may  be 
the  water.  Under  ordinary  conditions  there  is  alwaj^s  some 
surplus  heat  in  the  body.  If  a  little  water  is  taken  at  a  time 
this  heat  can  be  used  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water  to 
that  of  the  cow.  But  if  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water  is  taken 
in  at  one  time  it  will  require  a  great  deal  of  heat  to  warm  it 
and  this  will  require  more  heat  than  the  cow  has  available  so 
she  will  be  obliged  to  make  heat  to  warm  the  water.  And 
while  she  is  doing  this  she  cannot  be  making  milk.  A  large 
quantity  of  cold  water  may  also  chill  a  cow  to  such  an  extent 
to  injure  her  otherwise. 

See  to  it,  then,  that  the  cow  gets  plenty  of  water,  that  this  is 
taken  frequently  (two  or  three  times  a  day  at  least),  and  that 
the  water  is  not  too  cold, 


THE    DAIRY    COW  139 

Mineral  Matter. — What  was  said  above  in  regard  to  protein 
and  water  also  applies  to  mineral  matter.  Cows  should  have 
salt  before  them  at  all  times.  If  they  desire  other  minerals 
these  should  also  be  supplied. 

Other  Factors. — In  addition  to  the  feeds  mentioned  the 
cow  should  be  fed  timothy,  meadow,  millet  or  prairie  hay, 
corn  silage  or  corn  fodder,  corn,  oats  and  barley.  ^This  is  for 
variety  and  for  energy  and  heat  production.  Enough  should 
be  fed  at  all  times  to  keep  the  cow  in  good  flesh  and  at  the 
highest  possible  point  of  production. 

A  cow  should  be  allowed  to  go  dry  about  six  weeks.  During 
this  time  she  should  be  fed  enough  to  keep  her  in  good  condi- 
tion and  give  her  considerable  flesh  at  calving  time.  She 
will  then  with  good  care  at  calving,  give  the  largest  quantity 
of  milk  of  which  she  is  capable. 

Since  the  act  of  giving  birth  is  difficult,  requiring  considerable 
energy  and  reducing  the  cow  in  vigor  and  vitality,  she  cannot 
eat  large  quantities  of  feed  immediately  after  calving.  The 
feeding,  therefore,  should  be  limited  at  first  and  gradually 
increased.  Several  weeks  time  should  be  consumed  in  getting 
the  cow  up  to  full  feed.  During  this  time  she  is  using  the 
store  of  food  in  her  body  for  making  milk.  After  this  period 
of  two  or  three  weeks,  however,  the  cow  should  be  fed  enough 
to  keep  up  her  milk  flow  to  the  highest  point  possible  but  not 
enough  to  fatten  her. 

Since  a  cow  must  be  fed  in  accordance  with  the  amount 
of  milk  she  gives,  since  all  cows  do  not  give  the  same  amount 
of  milk,  and  since  all  cows  in  a  herd  do  not  freshen  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  practice  individual  feeding. 
This  is  usually  done  by  giving  the  cows  all  the  roughage  they 
will  clean  up  and  then  varying  the  grain  part  of  the  ration  in 
accordance  with  the  amount  of  milk  they  give. 

A  cow  has  two  functions:  (1)  that  of  making  milk;  and  (2) 
that  of  making  fat  on  her  body.  The  amount  of  work  she 
will  do  relatively  in  these  two  lines  depends  on  how  she  is 
built  (upon  her  breeding  for  generations).  If  she  is  a  good 
dairy  cow  she  will  give  relatively  more  milk;  if  she  is  inclined 
to  be  a  beef  cow,  she  will  give  less  milk.  Even  some  well- 
built  dairy  cows  do  not  give  as  much  milk  as  their  appearance 


140  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

would  indicate.  When  such  cows  are  fed  more  than  a  certain 
amount  they  will  use  this  extra  feed  for  fat  production.  This 
should  be  avoided,  since  a  cow  that  gets  too  fat  loses  materially 
her  efficiency  as  a  milk-making  machine. 

A  good  dairy  cow,  whose  nerve  stimulus  for  milk-making 
is  well  enough  developed,  will  make  milk  of  all  the  feed  she 
can  consume.  Her  limit  for  feeds  is  determined  by  her  power 
of  digestion  and  metabolism.  Thus  it  is  that  dairy  cows,  for 
best  work,  must  be  fed  individually. 

In  feeding  a  cow,  the  factor  of  maintenance  previously  dis- 
cussed must  not  be  forgotten.  The  first  feed  is  always  used 
for  maintenance  and  the  more  a  cow  can  eat,  digest  and  use 
to  advantage  above  the  amount  needed  for  maintenance  the 
better  and  the  more  profitable  she  is. 

For  feeding  cows  there  is  nothing  quite  so  good  as  pasture 
containing  an  abundance  and  a  variety  of  grasses  and  legumes. 
This  is  nature's  best  feed  and  if  this  is  supplemented  with  th(^ 
necessary  mineral  substances,  water  and  grains  for  concen- 
trates, she  will,  indeed,  be  well  cared  for. 

THE  COW  IN  OUTLINE 

In  discussing  the  conformation  of  a  cow  the  author  has  in 
mind  the  points  he  would  take  into  consideration  were  he  to 
start  a  herd  of  dairy  cows  on  his  own  farm.  In  starting  a 
herd,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  herd  bull. 
The  bull  should  be  a  pure  bred  and  a  very  good  individual. 
One  or  two  pure-bred  females,  possibly  a  heifer  calf  and  a 
bred  heifer  should  also  be  purchased.  These  must  also  be  of 
a  high  standard  of  excellence.  The  balance  of  the  herd  would 
be  selected  from  the  grade  stock  of  the  country,  but  they  would 
be  selected  for  dairy  conformation.  When  so  selected  they 
will  undoubtedly  be  good  producers  and  when  bred  to  a  good 
pure-bred  bull  will  produce  a  very  high  class  of  dairy-bred 
heifers.  A  dairy  cow  is  valuable  only  for  what  she  can  do. 
But  the  correlation  between  what  she  looks  like  or  her  con- 
formation and  her  productivity  is  so  accurate  that  one  can 
always  distinguish  a  good  one  from  a  poor  one  by  her 
looks. 

Capacity.— Length  of  body  is  important  in  the  dair}^  cow 


THE    DAIRY    COW  141 

as  well  as  in  the  beef  animal,  as  her  carcass  is  used  for  beef 
when  she  is  through  with  her  work  of  milk-making.  But  the 
dairy  cow  is  primarily  a  milk-making  machine.  Conse- 
quently, she  must  be  capable  of  eating,  digesting  and  using  a 
large  quantity  of  feed.  This  means  that  she  must  have  great 
internal  capacity.  She  must  have  a  long,  deep  and  broad 
middlepiece;  or  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed,  she  must  have 
a  large  "bread  basket."  A  cow  must  first  be  maintained 
and  the  more  she  can  eat  above  maintenance  the  more  profit- 
able she  is. 

Along  with  this,  it  is  important  that  a  cow  have  a  good  con- 
stitution. The  cow  in  other  words,  should  be  deep  and  broad 
in  chest  as  well  as  in  the  middle. 

She  should  also  be  long  from  the  hip  points  to  the  rear  and 
should  have  great  depth  in  the  hind  quarters.  This  allows 
more  room  for  reproductive  and  milk-making  organs.  It 
also  indicates  strength,  vigor  and  robustness. 

From  the  side  a  cow  should  be  deep  in  front,  deep  in  the 
middle  and  deep  in  the  hind  quarters.  From  the  rear,  she 
should  also  be  broad — broad  all  over  the  rear.  The  hips 
should  be  far  apart.  This  again  makes  more  room  inside  for 
the  development  and  delivery  of  the  calf  as  well  as  for  the 
udder.  The  hip  points  also  should  be  prominent,  enough  so 
that  a  hat  can  be  hung  on  them. 

Udder. — The  udder  of  a  cow  is  a  gland  where  the  milk  is 
made.  It  is  not  a  bag  as  it  is  frequently  called.  A  bag  is  a 
receptacle  or  container  in  which  materials  are  stored  or  trans- 
ported. While  the  udder  of  a  cow  stores  some  milk  its  primary 
function  is  milk-making.  And  a  large  part  of  the  milk  is 
made  at  the  time  the  milking  is  being  done.  Since  the  udder's 
function  is  the  manufacture  of  milk  it  should  be  large.  A  large 
machine  can  always  do  more  work  than  a  small  one  of  equal 
quality.  The  udder  also  should  be  made  of  glandular  and  not 
fatty  tissue.  It  should  have  a  large  attachment  with  the 
body;  that  is,  it  should  extend  well  up  in  the  rear  toward  the 
tail  and  come  well  forward  under  the  body.  The  udder  also 
should  be  well  developed  in  all  four  of  its  quarters  so  as  to  be 
uniform  and  symmetrical.  The  teats  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  for  good  handling  and  should  be  set  well  apart. 


142  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  udder  should  not  be  ''baggy."  That  is,  it  sliould  not 
have  a  small  attachment  to  the  body  and  be  long  or  deep 
vertically.  This  kind  of  an  udder  not  only  troubles  and  in- 
conveniences the  cow  in  travel  but  it  is  not  so  good  a  machine 
from  the  functional  standpoint.  A  cow  with  such  an  udder 
should  not  be  driven  rapidly  and  by  no  means  be  chased  by  a 
dog.     The  same  is  true,  in  fact,  of  any  cow. 

The  feeds  are  digested  in  the  stomach.  Here  the  blood 
vessels  gather  up  the  food  particles  such  as  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, fat,  mineral  matter  and  water  and  carry  this  material 
back  to  the  udder.  These  blood  vessels  go  back  into  the  ab- 
domen of  the  cow  then  into  the  udder.  The  larger,  therefore, 
the  attachment  between  udder  and  body  the  better  is  the 
opportunity  for  these  blood  vessels  carrying  material  for  milk 
making  to  get  to  their  destination.  A  good  udder  is  one  of  the 
big  factors  of  a  good  cow. 

Milk  Veins. — The  blood  after  it  has  discharged  its  load  of 
material  from  which  milk  is  made  by  the  gland  cell  must  go 
back  to  the  abdomen  to  get  a  new  supply  of  material.  Thus  it 
must  be  kept  in  motion  constantly  to  bring  material  to  the 
cells  of  the  udder.  These  cells  do  the  actual  work  of  making 
the  milk. 

In  order,  therefore,  that  there  may  be  ample  provision  for 
the  blood  to  flow  from  the  udder  back  to  the  body  of.  the  cow, 
the  milk  veins  must  be  well  developed.  These  are  the  tubes 
running  forward  from  the  udder,  one  on  each  side,  between  the 
skin  and  the  body  wall  toward  the  front  legs.  They  are  on  the 
outside  of  the  abdomen.  These  veins  should  be  large  and  it 
is  said  that  they  should  also  be  crooked  rather  than  straight. 
At  any  rate,  they  must  be  large  so  as  to  make  ample  provision 
for  the  blood  to  flow  back  from  the  udder  to  the  body. 

Milk  Wells. — These  milk  veins  go  back  into  the  body  and 
there  must  be  a  hole  through  the  body  wall.  These  holes  are 
called  milk  wells  or  sometimes  'Sviers."  Wier  is  an  irriga- 
tion term.  A  wier  gives  a  means  of  measuring  water  flow. 
So  the  milk  wells  or  wiers  measure  the  flow  of  blood  from  the 
udder.  And  the  flow  of  blood  is  an  index  of  the  amount  of 
milk  that  is  made  by  the  udder.  The  size  of  the  milk  well  can 
easily  be  determined  by  feeling  with  the  fingers  when  the  cow  is 


THE    DAIRY    ("OW  148 

giving  milk.  Sometimes  there  are  several  milk  wells  on  a 
side.  The  more  there  are  the  better  is  the  cow.  In  a  very 
good  cow,  if  the  flow  of  blood  had  to  go  through  only  one 
hole,  it  would  have  to  be  so  large  that  there  might  be  danger 
of  the  intestines  falling  out  against  the  skin  and  pressing  this 
out.  This  then  would  be  a  rupture.  Consequently  a  cow 
with  several  milk  wells  is  considered  better  than  one  with  only 
one  well. 

In  this  connection,  it  might  be  asked,  why  is  the  milk  vein 
on  the  outside  of  the  bod}^?  and  why  should  the  milk  well  be 
located  well  forward?  Why  is  not  the  milk  vein  on  the  inside 
of  the  body?  The  answer  to  these  questions  is  simply  this. 
A  good  cow  must  eat  lots  of  feed  and  this  bulk  of  material  is 
heavy.  With  this  weight  on  the  inside  of  the  abdominal  wall 
there  is  so  much  pressure  that  blood  could  not  flow  through  a 
tube  even  if  it  were  situated  here  on  the  inside.  This  also 
explains  the  forward  location  of  the  milk  wells.  These  must 
be  far  enough  forward  in  a  good  cow  to  get  in  front  of  the 
area  of  great  pressure  caused  by  the  paunch  full  of  feed. 

Withers. — The  withers  of  a  cow  include  the  upper  part  of 
the  shoulders  and  the  front  part  of  the  back.  A  good  dairy 
cow  is  rather  thin  and  sharply  built  at  this  part.  A  beef  cow 
is  broad  and  thick  here.  This  thinness  or  sharpness  of  the 
dairy  cow  is  another  indication  of  a  good  cow. 

The  udder  is  at  the  lower  and  rear  part  of  the  body.  Here 
the  cow  that  is  bred  and  developed  for  milk  making  does  her 
work.  If  this  is  true,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  will  natu- 
rally be  neglected  and  become  lean.  Thus,  the  good  dairy  cow 
is  lean  generally  and  not  thick  and  broad  at  the  withers.  If 
a  person  carried  a  strong  healthy  arm  in  a  sling,  before  many 
years  such  an  arm  would  become  very  small  and  very  weak. 

The  neck  should  also  be  lean  and  light.  This  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  slimness  and  makes  it  look  long.  The  head 
also  is  lean  and  fine. 

Lack  of  Ribs. — The  ribs  of  a  cow  should  be  well  sprung  out 
from  the  backbone  and  should  also  be  long  to  give  the  cow 
plenty  of  internal  capacity  for  organs  and  for  feed.  Moreover, 
a  good  cow  has  fewer  ribs  than  a  poor  cow. 

A  good  horse  should  l)e  '^ closely  ribbed  up"  toward  the  hip. 


144  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

That  is,  his  hind  quarters  should  be  set  close  up  on  the  middle. 
This  gives  the  horse  strength.  In  handling  a  horse,  there 
should  be  very  little  space  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip. 
But  with  a  cow  this  space  should  be  large.  Ordinarily,  a  cow 
should  be  divided  into  three  parts  about  equal,  as  follows: 
(1)  from  rear  of  shoulder  blade  to  last  rib;  (2)  from  last  rib  to 
hip;  and  (3)  from  hip  to  rear  end.  In  other  words,  a  cow 
should  have  a  long  hollow  space  in  front  of  the  hip. 

In  good  cows  the  last  rib  is  sometimes  only  a  short  stub. 
At  other  times  it  is  entirely  gone.  This  makes  a  long  hollow 
space  in  front  of  the  hip  and  is  an  indication  of  a  good  cow. 
But  how?  The  purpose  of  the  ribs  is  to  make  a  cavity  within 
for  the  internal  organs.  Or  to  hold  the  weight  or  pressure  of 
the  body  itself  off  of  the  internal  and  vital  organs.  The  ribs 
also  assist  in  respiration. 

A  good  cow  eats  lots  of  feed.  And  where  the  paunch  is  full 
it  extends  upward  and  sometimes  comes  up  higher  than  the 
back  bone  itself.  This  takes  the  pressure  off  of  the  last  ribs. 
If,  then,  these  ribs  have  no  work  to  do  they  will  in  time  gradu- 
ally disappear.  Thus  it  is  that  a  cow  that  is  minus  a  few  ribs 
or  has  a  long  hollow  space  in  front  of  the  hip  is  a  good  cow. 
It  simply  means  that  her  ancestors  have  been  eating  lots  of 
feed  and  lots  of  feed  means  lots  of  milk. 

Nerve  Force. — In  order  that  a  cow  may  be  a  good  milk 
cow,  she  must  have  a  well-developed  nervous  system.  She 
must  have  a  strong  nervous  organization.  A  cow  with  this 
development  is  not  too  narrow  in  the  head  and  her  eyes  should 
be  large  and  prominent.  A  well-developed,  large,  bright  and 
active  eye  is  an  indication  of  nerve  development.  But  this 
factor  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  judge.  Of  all  the  factors 
that  have  to  do  with  milk  production  this  is  least  understood. 
It  is  on  this  point  that  the  judge  will  sometimes  go  astray. 
He  is  not  always  able  to  pick  a  very  good  cow  from  one  that 
is  not  quite  so  good  though  he  can  always  pick  a  good  cow 
from  a  medium  or  poor  cow.  And  this  can  be  done  just  by 
observation  and  handling  as  discussed  above. 

Quality. — Quality  is  of  just  as  much  importance  in  dairy 
cows  as  it  is  in  any  other  animal.  The  cow  should  be  of  fine 
quality  yet  not  so  fine  as  to  be  delicate.     Fine  quality  means 


TFIE    DAIRY    COW  145 

more  muscle  and  gland  cells  to  do  the  work  for  which  the  cow- 
is  kept. 

Size. — The  matter  of  size  in  dairy  cattle  is  of  importance. 
A  large  cow  is  a  large  machine  and  can  do  more  work  than  a 
small  cow.  To  be  sure,  a  large  cow  requires  more  for  main- 
tenance than  a  small  cow,  but  her  relative  maintenance  re- 
quirement is  no  larger  and  possibly  is  smaller.  A  large  cow 
can  be  sheltered  and  cared  for  cheaper  considering  her  product 
than  a  sm.all  one.  When  cows  or  their  offspring  are  sold  for 
beef,  size  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance.  Taking  all 
these  things  into  consideration,  a  large  cow  is  worth  more  than 
a  small  one  of  equal  quality,  conformation,  etc. 

A  cow  should  also  have  a  long  slim  tail,  straight  legs,  and 
good  feet,  a  large  strong  mouth  and  large  open  nostrils, 
'i'he  value  of  all  these  points  are  self-evident. 

SHELTER  FOR   COWS 

In  summer,  except  possiblj-  in  the  most  northerly  countries, 
the  cattle  should  be  supplied  with  shade.  The  kind  of  shade 
that  is  best  perhaps  is  large  trees  on  a  hill  or  knoll  in  an  open 
field.  Here  the  cattle  can  be  out  of  the  hot  sun  and  be  where 
the  circulation  of  air  is  the  best.  If  this  kind  of  an  environ- 
ment cannot  be  had,  the  next  best  thing  should  be  provided. 
This  may  be  either  shade  from  trees  in  a  grove,  timber  lot  or 
natural  forest,  an  artificial  shed  built  for  shade  or  even  access 
to  a  barn. 

There  should  also  be  protection  from  cold  rain  and  cold 
winds  in  the  spring  and  fall.  A  shed  or  barn  will  answer 
the  purpose  for  this.  For  protection  from  winds  there  is 
nothing  better  than  a  timber  lot  or  section  of  forest. 

The  Dairy  Barn. — A  barn  is  necessary  in  winter  to  help 
maintain  body  temperature  in  the  cow.  The  cow  has  a 
temperature  of  about  100  degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  is  the 
same  in  winter  as  in  summer.  In  the  summer  it  is  the  problem 
of  the  animal  body  to  get  rid  of  excess  heat  resulting  from 
internal  work.  In  the  winter  a  barn  is  necessary  to  prevent 
loss  of  heat  too  rapidly.  Under  such  conditions,  the  cows 
can  use  their  feed  for  making  milk,  while  if  they  are  obliged 

10 


Hfi  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

to  live  in  a  cold  environment  too  much  feed  is  used  for  lieat 
production  and  less  is  available  for  milk-making. 

A  barn  for  cows  should  be  roomy,  well  ventilated,  and  well 
lighted.  Some  cities,  where  milk  is  sold  by  dairymen,  have 
ordinances  requiring  barns  with  these  things  well  provided 
for.  The  barn  should  not  be  crowded  and  the  air  therein 
should  at  all  times  be  fresh  and  wholesome.  Any  system  of 
ventilation  that  will  help  keep  the  air  fresh  and  pure  is  all 
right.  At  the  same  time,  the  barn  should  not  be  too  cold 
neither  too  warm. 

A  good  plan  is  to  have  two  rows  of  cows  facing  the  outside 
walls.  There  should  be  a  wide  alley  in  the  center  and  a  nar- 
rower alley  for  feeding  in  front  of  each  row  of  cows.  These 
alleys  are  next  to  the  outside  walls.  Here  then  in  front  of  the 
cows  should  be  located  the  fresh-air  intakes  and  the  windows. 

The  wide  alley  in  the  middle,  behind  the  cows,  allows  for 
wagon  or  manure  spreader  to  pass  through  and  take  out  the 
manure  and  bring  in  the  bedding.  When  cows  face  toward 
the  center,  as  barns  are  sometimes  built  with  a  wide  manger 
for  both  rows  of  cows  to  eat  out  of,  there  is  danger  of  the 
cow  on  one  side  inhaling  the  air  that  the  cow  on  the  other  side 
exhales. 

A  barn  must  be  so  built  that  it  will  fit  the  needs  of  the  farm 
and  the  farmer  where  it  is  built.  It  should  also  be  built  eco- 
nomically and  so  arranged  that  the  work  can  be  done  easily. 

MILKING 

Milking  should  be  done  under  sanitary  conditions  as  nearly 
as  possible.  The  barn  should  be  absolutely  clean  and  if  the 
floor  can  be  washed  beforehand  so  much  the  better.  Dusty 
hay  should  not  be  fed  just  before  milking.  This  causes  dust 
to  float  in  the  air  which  will  settle  into  the  milk. 

All  foreign  matter  should  be  kept  out  of  the  milk.  This 
may  be  in  the  form  of,  or  may  contain,  dirt,  disease  germs,  or 
other  bacteria  that  make  milk  unhealthy,  sour,  or  rancid. 
Bacteria  grow  rapidly  in  milk;  it  is  warm  and  contains  all 
the  necessary  food  materials  for  germs.  The  barn,  then, 
should  be  free  from  bad  odors  and  dust  and  the  udder  should 
be  washed  and  wiped  dry.     The  body  of  the  cow  in  the  region 


THE    DAIRY    COW  147 

of  the  iidclcr  should  also  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  It 
should  at  least  be  brushed  before  milking. 

The  milker  should  wear  clean  clothes  and  wash  his  hands 
before  milking  each  cow.  The  milk  stool  which  is  handled  as 
a  rule  with  the  same  hand  with  which  the  milking  is  done 
should  also  be  clean.  Sometimes  milkers  fasten  the  stool  to 
their  body  with  a  strap  so  as  to  avoid  handling  it.  In  up-to- 
date  sanitary  dairies  the  milkers  wear  white  laundered  suits. 

Bacteria. — Bacteria  are  very  small  living  organisms.  They 
are  so  small  that  many  of  them  can  live  in  a  particle  of  dust 
that  floats  in  the  air.  These  are  found  everywhere.  As 
these  germs  get  into  the  milk  they  grow,  and  they  grow  very 
rapidly  in  warm  milk.  One  of  the  waste  products  of  these 
germs  is  like  an  acid  and  it  is  this  that  makes  milk  taste  sour. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  get  milk  from  a  cow  without 
getting  some  of  these  germs  into  it.  But  the  thing  to  do  is  to 
get  as  few  into  it  as  possible,  and  then  as  far  as  possible  to 
prevent  those  that  do  get  in  from  growing  and  multiplying. 
This  is  done  by  cooling. 

Milk  should  be  cooled  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow. 
If  it  is  to  be  separated,  this  should  be  done  first  and  then  the 
cream  should  be  cooled  immediately.  Milk  and  cream  that 
are  thus  handled  will  keep  sweet  for  a  long  time.  Sometimes 
one  hears  it  said  that  a  thunderstorm  makes  cream  sour, 
but  this  is  perfectly  ridiculous.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
cream  sours  more  readily  at  the  time  of  a  thunderstorm. 
But  such  storms  come  in  spells  of  hot  weather  and  it  is  the  hot 
weather  that  makes  the  bacteria  grow  and  these  make  the 
milk  sour.  The  same  cause  produces  the  thunderstorm, 
namely,  warm  weather. 

If  milk  and  milk  vessels  are  not  kept  absolutely  clean, 
germs  of  contagious  diseases  such  as  typhoid  may  also  get 
into  them.  This  will  start  epidemics  of  disease.  To  kill 
any  germs  that  may  be  in  milk  it  should  be  sterilized.  This 
consists  of  heating  it  to  a  boiling  temperature.  Milk  may 
also  be  pasteurized.  By  this  process  it  is  heated  to  145  degrees 
Fahrenheit  and  kept  there  for  about  ten  minutes  and  then 
cooled  rapidly.  This  kills  most  of  the  germs  present  in  milk 
and  makes  it  keep  much  longer.     But  both  sterilizing   and 


148  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

pasteurizing  give  the  milk  a  flavor  that  many  people  do  not 
like.  Consequently,  it  is  not  popular.  If  milking  is  done 
under  sanitary  conditions  and  proper  care  is  taken  afterward 
the  milk  will  keep  well. 

Vessels  in  which  milk  is  kept  must  always  be  clean.  A  milk 
pail  should  first  be  rinsed  in  lukewarm  water.  Then  it 
should  be  scrubbed  with  warm  water  and  soap,  a  brush  being 
used.  After  this  it  should  again  be  rinsed,  and  then  it  should 
be  scalded  with  hot  water  or  steam.  Finally  it  should  be  in- 
verted so  the  neck  or  opening  is  not  obstructed,  in  a  place 
where  the  air  is  pure  and  wholesome.  This  will  allow  it  to 
drain  and  the  air  to  circulate  in  it.  Pails,  cans  or  other  ves- 
sels should  not  be  wiped  after  scalding  as  this  again  intro- 
duces germs. 

The  Mental  Connection. — The  act  of  milking  is  one  of  con- 
siderable importance.  The  cow  is  a  living  machine  with  a 
highly  developed  nervous  organization.  This  machine  must 
be  properly  handled  or  it  will  not  work  right.  There  should  be 
complete  harmony  between  the  milker  and  the  cow.  The  cow 
should  be  handled  with  kindness  and  good  judgment.  If  the 
milker  hits  the  cow  with  the  milk  stool,  kicks  her  or  swears  at 
her,  harmony  is  destroyed  and  the  cow  does  not  give  as  much 
milk  as  she  otherwise  would.  As  said  before,  a  large  part  of 
the  milk  is  made  during  the  time  the  cow  is  being  milked  and 
if  she  is  not  properly  handled  she  will  not  do  her  best. 

In  this  connection  it  might  be  asked  what  is  the  purpose 
of  the  orchestra  at  a  dinner  or  what  is  the  purpose  of  the  after- 
dinner  speech  at  a  banquet.  It  is  simply  to  get  the  mind  into 
a  proper  attitude  for  the  digestion  of  the  meal.  So  also  it 
might  be  advantageous  to  have  an  orchestra  in  a  dairy  barn  at 
milking  time.  At  any  rate,  some  milkers  say  that  cows  will 
give  more  milk  when  the  milker  is  whistling,  than  when  not. 
Some  even  say  that  certain  cows  become  accustomed  to 
certain  tunes  and  will  do  their  best  only  when  these  tunes 
are  reproduced  for  them. 

It  is  also  known  to  milkers  that  a  cow  will  give  more  milk 
when  she  is  milked  rapidly  than  when  she  is  milked  slowly. 
This  is  thought  to  be  on  account  of  the  stimulation  produced 
by  rapid  milking.     Most  cows  are  milked  twice  a  day.     Heavy 


THE    DAIRY    COW  149 

milkers  should  be  milked  three  times  and  some  very  heavy 
milkers  should  be  milked  four  times  a  day. 

Manner  of  Milking. — A  person's  hands  and  the  cow's  teats 
should  always  be  kept  dry  during  milking.  Some  people  milk 
with  a  wet  hand  and  thus  wash  off  any  dirt  that  may  be  on  the 
hands  or  udder  into  the  milk. 

The  best  way  to  milk  is  to  take  the  wdiole  teat  into  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  then  close  the  fist  wdth  upper  or  forefinger  first. 
This  will  force  the  milk  out.  After  getting  all  that  is  available 
by  this  means,  stripping  should  be  resorted  to.  This  consists 
simply  of  stripping  the  teat  with  forefinger  and  thumb. 

The  milker  should  seat  himself  at  the  right  skle  of  the  cow 
and  should  use  a  stool  with  three  legs.  A  one-legged  stool 
requires  too  much  of  the  attention  of  the  milker  to  keep  his 
Imlance.  The  two  front  teats  should  be  milked  first  and  then 
the  two  rear  ones. 

The  cow  should  alw^ays  be  milked  thoroughly  clean.  That 
is,  all  the  milk  should  be  taken  that  can  possibly  be  had.  It 
has  been  found  by  testing  that  the  last  milk,  or  the  strippings, 
are  alwa3^s  richer  in  fat  than  the  first  milk.  Thus,  if  a  cow 
is  not  milked  dry,  the  best  part  of  the  milk  is  lost. 

The  Milking  Machine. — Some  years  ago  milking  machines 
w'ere  invented.  At  first  they  did  not  prove  very  satisfactory. 
But  during  recent  years  the  machines  have  been  improved 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  more  satisfactory  than  they 
were  previously.  Nevertheless,  many  cow^s  do  not  seem  to 
respond  to  the  mechanical  machine  as  well  as  they  do  to  milking 
by  hand.  The  milking  machine  makes  it  possible  to  milk 
more  cows,  in  a  given  time  but  it  seems  that  in  order  to  get  the 
most  satisfactory^  results  the  cows  must  be  selected  and  bred 
for  machine  milking. 

HOW  TO  GET  A  GOOD  COW 

A  good  cow  can  sometimes  be  bought  but  as  a  rule  the  best 
cows  are  bred  on  the  farm.  Good  cows  usually  are  not  for 
sale  and  when  they  are  for  sale  the  price  is  such  that  the  aver- 
age man  could  not  afford  to  buy  them.  Sometimes  dairy- 
men ''sell  out"  and  so  dispose  of  the  good  cows  as  well  as  of 
poor  ones.     At  other  times  cows  or  heifers  that  will  develop 


150  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

into  good  cows  are  sold  before  their  valuable  characteristics 
are  recognized,  but  if  a  man  goes  to  buy  such  a  cow  it  implies 
that  he  has  better  judging  ability  than  the  seller.  This  may 
be  true  sometimes  when  there  is  considerable  difference  in 
ability  in  favor  of  the  purchaser.  But  the  breeder  or  owner 
who  knows  his  animals  always  has  the  advantage  of  the  man 
who  comes  in  to  buy. 

While  it  is  necessary  to  buy  cows  in  starting  a  herd,  the 
aim  should  always  be  after  the  start  to  breed  one's  own  stock 
as  far  as  possible.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  the 
herd  sires  but  should  apply  to  the  cows.  The  principles 
relative  to  breeding  previously  discussed  should  be  observed. 
The  sire  as  well  as  the  dam  should  be  as  good  as  possible  and 
the  environment  and  the  feeding  also  should  be  such  as  are 
conducive  to  improvement.  When  the  calf  is  born  it  has  all 
the  possibilities  for  development  that  it  will  ever  get. 

The  Calf. — The  fortunes  of  a  cow,  be  they  good  or  bad,  are 
all  in  a  calf  at  birth.  The  calf,  however,  must  be  properly 
fed  and  cared  for.  A  calf  should  always  be  left  with  its 
mother  till  it  is  perfectly  dry.  The  mother  as  a  rule  licks  it. 
The  calf  also  should  have  the  first  milk.  This  acts  as  a 
corrective  and  puts  the  bowels  of  the  youngster  into  proper 
condition.  The  material  that  has  collected  there  during 
foetal  development  will  be  passed  out  so  that  the  digestive 
apparatus  will  be  in  proper  condition  for  work. 

The  custom  among  dairymen  differs  as  to  how  long  the  calf 
should  be  left  with  its  dam.  Some  allow  it  to  get  just  the 
first  milk  and  others  leave  the  calf  with  its  mother  several 
days.  This,  however,  is  immaterial.  Some  even  take  the 
calf  away  before  it  has  had  a  chance  to  suck  at  all.  They  then 
milk  the  cow  and  give  the  first  milk  to  the  calf.  The  sooner 
a  calf  is  taken  from  its  dam  the  more  easily  it  can  be  taught 
to  drink  and  the  longer  it  is  allowed  to  suck  the  more  difficult 
this  task  becomes. 

The  yoimg  calf,  however,  should  always  be  fed  sweet  fresh 
milk  about  as  warm  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  and  this  should 
be  fed  out  of  a  clean  pail.  As  a  rule,  the  milk  from  a  fresh  cow 
is  not  used  for  dairy  purposes  for  three  or  four  days.  This 
is  used  to  feed  the  new  calf.     After  this  period  it  is  better 


THE    DAIKY    COW  151 

perhaps  to  feed  tlie  calf  a  mixture  of  milk  from  several  cows. 
This  will  avoid  feeding  either  very  rich  or  very  poor  milk  to 
aii}^  one  calf.  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  richness 
of  milk  from  different  cows. 

The  calf  should  be  kept  in  a  clean  box  stall  and  well  bedded. 
This  stall,  or,  better,  a  pen,  should  be  well  lighted,  well  venti- 
lated, and  large  enough  to  let  the  calf  take  exercise.  A  number 
of  calves  can  be  kept  together,  but  at  feeding  time  they  should 
be  put  into  stanchions.  These  stanchions  should  be  arranged 
along  an  alley  to  make  feeding  as  convenient  as  possible. 
Each  calf  should  be  fed  out  of  a  separate  pail  so  that  it  may 
get  its  proper  amount  of  food.  Calves  should  be  left  in  the 
stanchions  till  their  mouths  become  dry  and  the  taste  of  milk 
disappears.  If  this  is  not  done  they  will  be  tempted  to  suck 
each  other,  which  is  a  bad  habit. 

Milk  is  the  normal  feed  for  the  young  animal  but  the  calf 
should  not  be  kept  on  milk  alone  very  long.  The  calf  soon 
learns  to  nibble  a  httle  at  hay  and  good  hay  should  be  kept 
before  it  at  all  times.  After  a  few  weeks  it  will  also  learn  to 
eat  oats  and  then  this  should  be  fed  in  addition. 

One  of  the  main  considerations  in  calf  feeding,  however,  is 
the  water.  Milk  alone  will  give  best  results  for  a  compara- 
tively short  time.  Then  water  should  be  added.  Just  how 
much  water  is  needed  is  not  known.  This  has  not  as  yet  been 
worked  out  scientifically.  There  are  several  ways  to  feed 
water.  One  way  is  to  set  water  before  the  calf  in  a  pail  as 
soon  as  it  gets  through  with  the  milk.  It  then  has  the  taste 
of  milk  still  in  its  mouth  and  will,  as  a  rule,  drink  some  water. 
Another  way  is  to  mix  the  water  and  milk.  The  water, 
however,  should  not  be  too  cold. 

In  the  warm  part  of  the  year  calves  should  be  kept  in  a 
pasture.  But  this  should  be  well  supphed  with  shade  and 
should  furnish  a  variety  of  fresh  grasses.  Calves  should  not 
be  exposed  too  much  to  flies.  A  fly  repellant  can  be  used  or 
the  calves  can  be  kept  in  a  dark  barn  through  the  day  in  fly 
time. 

The  amount  of  milk  fed  to  calves  should  vary  with  different 
calves.  A  large  strong  calf  should  be  fed  more  than  a  small 
weak  one.     From  8  to  12  pounds  of  milk  a  day  at  first  is  con- 


152  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

sidered  a  good  feed.  This  might  be  increased  to  from  18  to 
24  pounds  when  the  calf  is  several  months  old.  At  first  a 
calf  should  be  fed  at  least  three  times  a  day  but  later  it  can  be 
fed  twice  a  day. 

A  calf  should  have  whole  milk  till  it  is  several  weeks  old, 
and  then,  to  avoid  feeding  expensive  butter  fat,  skim  milk  can 
be  substituted.  The  change  from  whole  milk  to  skim  milk, 
however,  should  be  made  slowly  and  gradually.  At  least  a 
week,  and,  better,  two  weeks,  should  be  allowed  for  this 
change.  The  skim  milk  should  be  fed  warm,  as  the  whole 
milk  is  fed. 

A  mistake  commonly  made  is  that  skim  milk  is  thought 
to  be  of  little  value  because  it  has  been  skimmed.  On  this 
account  some  people  feed  more  of  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
skim  milk  is  richer  in  protein  than  whole  milk.  This  is  true 
because  the  fat  is  taken  out  by  skimming  and  the  protein  is 
left.  And  protein  is  likely  to  cause  harm  when  too  much 
milk  is  fed.  But  skim  milk  is  an  unbalanced  ration.  Some 
material  like  ground  flax,  which  is  rich  in  fat,  should  be  added. 
By  adding  such  a  feed  the  total  dry  matter  is  increased,  and 
water  is  also  needed  to  keep  the  ration  balanced.  Both  corn 
and  oats  are  good  calf  feeds  because  they  are  comparatively 
rich  in  fat  but  not  so  rich  as  flax. 

A  well-balanced  ration  for  calves  can  be  made  from  the 
feeds  grown  on  the  farm.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  buy  calf  meals.  While  many  of  these  are  all  right  and  give 
good  results,  they  are  as  a  rule  very  expensive.  They  fre- 
quently contain  imported  materials  and  with  the  manu- 
facturer's and  transportation  charges  added  they  cannot  be  sold 
cheap.  The  farm  is  the  place  where  these  things  should  be 
produced. 

Weaning. — While  a  calf  is  being  fed  milk,  containing  protein, 
the  hay  and  grain  fed  in  addition  need  not  be  of  any  special 
kind  but  should  be  varied.  A  mixture  of  several  hays  and 
grains,  or  of  several  grasses  in  the  pasture,  is  best.  All  of 
these,  however,  should  be  of  extra  good  quality  and  be  palatable 
to  the  calf.  Legumes  are  not  necessary  at  this  time  as  th(^ 
calf  gets  its  protein  in  the  form  of  milk. 

When  the  calf  is  weaned  or  when  the  milk  is  removed  from 


THE    DAIRY    COW  153 

the  ration,  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  calf  be  not  stinted 
on  protein.  It  cannot  grow  so  fast  as  it  should  without  a 
sufficient  amount  of  protein.  The  protein  roughages,  such  as 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  peas,  either  green  or  in  the  form  of  hay  should 
be  used.  These  should  be  supplemented  with  a  variety  of 
grains,  such  as  oats,  corn,  ground  wheat  or  wheat  bran  and  a 
little  ground  flax,  oil  meal,  or  cotton-seed  meal.  If  the  pro- 
tein roughages  above  mentioned  are  not  available,  and 
timothy,  bluegrass,  millet,  corn  stover  or  silage  are  to  be  fed, 
more  protein  should  be  fed  in  the  concentrate  form.  This  is 
done  by  increasing  the  flax,  oil  meal,  or  cotton-seed  meal. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  give  calves  plenty  of  exercise, 
water,  salt,  and  other  minerals  if  the  calves  want  it.  The 
calf  becomes  valuable  as  a  cow,  only  as  it  is  properly  bred 
and  second  as  it  is  properly  fed  and  developed. 

The  Veal  Calf. — Sometimes  the  veal  calf  makes  an  impor- 
tant adjunct  to  the  dairy  business.  Good  veal  calves  are  ob- 
tained from  the  large  or  fleshy  breeds,  or  are  obtained  by  using 
a  beef  bull.  The  feeding  then  should  be  such  that  the  calves 
can  both  grow  and  fatten.  The  best  veal,  undoubtedly,  is 
made  by  allowing  the  calf  to  suck  a  good  cow  but  this  is  rather 
expensive.  If  the  calf  cannot  be  allowed  to  suck  on  account 
of  the  expense,  it  should  be  fed  as  outlined  in  the  foregoing 
but  be  extra  well  fed  with  skim  milk,  grain  and  hay. 

In  a  herd  of  cows,  the  first  milk  from  the  cows,  before  the 
milk  is  good  for  dairy  purposes,  may  be  used  for  the  veal 
calves,  along  with  some  skim  milk.  Sometimes  after  a  calf 
has  been  fed  on  skim  milk  it  is  again  fed  whole  milk  for  a  time 
before  it  is  sold.  This  puts  on  the  finishing  touches  and  makes 
the  calf  sell  for  a  better  price.  Calves  are  sold  for  veal  at 
anywhere  from  six  to  twelve  weeks  of  age. 

BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 

There  are  several  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  but  to  try  to  say 
which  one  is  best  would  be  hke  telling  a  man  which  woman  he 
ought  to  take  for  a  wife.  All  the  breeds  of  cows  have  their 
advantages  and  their  disadvantages.  The  principal  breeds 
are  as  follows:  Holstein  Friesian;  Jersey;  Guernsey;  Milking 
Shorthorn,  and  Ayrshire. 


154  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

Holstein  Friesian. — The  Holstein  Friesian  breed  is  popu- 
larly spoken  of  as  Holstein.  This  breed  originated  in  northern 
Europe  and  especially  in  Holland  and  Denmark.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  cold  climates.  These  cattle  are  black  and  white, 
the  patches  of  the  two  colors  being  rather  large.  They  are  a 
large  breed  and  carry  considerable  flesh.  The  calves  of  this 
breed  are  large,  grow  rapidly  and  make  excellent  veal  calves. 

The  Holstein  breed  is  noted  for  its  ability  to  consume  and 
use  to  good  advantage  a  large  amount  of  coarse  feeds  or 
roughages.  They  must,  of  course,  have  grain  in  addition. 
But  since  the  roughages  are  the  cheaper  feeds,  if  they  can  use 
more  of  this  kind  of  material,  it  is  to  their  advantage.  Hoi- 
st eins  also  are  noted  for  giving  a  large  quantity  of  milk  but 
this  is  not  very  rich  in  butter  fat.  The  yield  of  butter,  how- 
ever, is  large  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  milk.  This 
gives  more  skim  milk  for  feeding  purposes. 

The  Holstein  cow  is  so  large  and  carries  so  much  flesh  that 
when  she  is  through  with  her  work  in  the  dairy  she  is  worth 
something  for  beef.  Sometimes  the  milk  of  this  breed  is  not 
rich  enough  to  come  up  to  the  standard  required  by  the  retail 
milk  trade.  In  such  cases  part  of  the  milk  has  to  be  skimmed 
and  the  cream  put  with  the  rest  of  it  so  as  to  make  this  richer. 

Holstein  milk  and  cream  is  not  so  yellow  as  that  from  some 
other  breeds.  This  is  because  of  coloring  matter  put  in  by 
the  cow  and  the  small  size  of  the  fat  globules,  and  not  to  the 
small  amount  of  fat  present.  The  fact  that  the  fat  globules 
in  this  milk  are  so  small  is  an  advantage  when  milk  or  cream 
is  handled  over  rough  roads.  It  does  not  churn  as  easily. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  milk  is  more  difficult  to  skim  and  the 
cream  more  difficult  to  churn.  These  factors  are  of  relatively 
small  importance,  however. 

Jersey. — Jersey  cattle  come  from  the  Isle  of  Jersey  north 
of  France.  The  climate  is  mild  and  the  cattle  are  not  always 
so  robust  and  vigorous  as  might  be  desired. 

Jerseys  are  usuall}^  fawn-colored  but  sometimes  red  and 
white  with  the  colors  well  blended.  The  muzzle,  tongue  and 
end  of  tail  or  switch  are  usually  black.  Jerseys  are  rather 
small  and  very  lean  and  angular.  They  are  the  ideal  of  the 
extreme  dairy  type  but  are  sometimes  thought  too  delicate. 


THE   DAIRY    COW 


155 


Fig.  21. — Holstoin    l)ull.      Show   condition. 


Fig.  22. — Holsteiu  cow  after  milking.     Farm  condition. 


150 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


Tlie  Jerseys,  however,  give  very  rich  milk  which  is  of  a  good 
yellow  color  and  of  large-sized  fat  globules.  On  this  account 
cream  from  this  milk  churns  easily  and  the  milk  is  popular 
for  city  trade.  The  producer,  however,  may  give  the  con- 
sumer more  than  he  pays  for  and  thus  decrease  his  revenue. 
This,  however,  may  be  remedied  by  standardizing.  Part  of 
the  milk  is  skimmed  and  the  skim  milk  put  with  the  balance 
of  the  whole  milk. 


Fig.  23. — Jersey  cow.     Good  farm  condition. 


Jersey  cows  are  very  economical  producers  but  must  be 
well  fed  with  a  large  proportion  of  concentrates  and  must  be 
well  cared  for.  They  do  not  have  a  large  heavy  carcass  to 
carry  around  so  can  devote  more  of  their  energy  to  milk  pio- 
duction.  But  when  slaughtering  time  comes  there  is  not 
much  of  a  carcass  to  sell  for  beef.  The  calves  also  do  not 
make  good  veal  unless  they  are  sired  by  a  beef  bull. 

Guernsey. — Guernsey  cows  come  from  the  Island  of 
Guernsey  near  the  Island  of  Jersey.  This  breed  is  much  like 
the  Jersey.     They  are  much  the  same  in  color  except  that 


THE   DAIRY    COW 


157 


Fig.  24. — Guernsey  cow.     Ciood  constitution.      (Phot( 
farm,  Duluth,  Minn.) 


)ni  Joan  Dulutl 


Fig.  25. — Ayrshire  cow.     Good  length  of  body. 


158  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

they  do  not  have  the  black  points  and  have  more  yellow  and 
white.  The  Guernsey  is  larger  and  not  quite  so  delicate  as 
the  Jersey.     Otherwise  they  are  much  alike. 

Ayrshire. — The  Ayrshire  cow  comes  from  England.  It 
is  of  medium  size  and  red  and  white  spotted.  Sometimes  it 
is  nearly  all  white.  Ayrshires  are  not  so  popular  in  this 
country  as  the  other  breeds  mentioned. 

THE  SILO 

The  silo  is  an  appliance  on  the  farm  for  preserving  green 
feeds  in  the  succulent  form.  The  universal  feed  for  the  silo 
is  the  corn  plant. 

Silo  Feeds. — By  this  term  is  meant  feeds  that  are  adaptable 
for  silo  filling.  Mention  is  frequently  made  of  clover,  alfalfa 
or  other  hay  crops  for  the  silo,  but  these  feeds  do  not  keep  well 
in  a  silo  and  can  be  stored  much  more  economically  in  a  barn 
or  shed  in  the  form  of  hay.  Making  silage  of  a  feed  does  not 
add  anything  to  its  value.  It  only  preserves  it  and  in  the  case 
of  the  corn  stalk  makes  it  more  palatable.  The  hays,  if 
properly  made  are  palatable,  easily  preserved,  and  are  entirely 
consumed. 

The  advantages  of  putting  corn  into  the  silo  are  as  follows: 
(1)  The  corn  stalk  on  account  of  its  pithy  and  dry  nature  is 
made  more  palatable.  This  is  pressed  down  and  moistened  so 
the  cattle  can  eat  it  with  a  relish.  (2)  The  tough  outside  part 
of  the  stalk  is  also  softened.  (3)  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
winter  corn  stover  becomes  dry,  hard  and  many  leaves  are 
lost.  In  the  form  of  silage  it  is  well  preserved  throughout 
the  winter.  (4)  In  case  of  an  early  frost,  corn  can  be  cut  and 
put  into  the  silo  without  losing  leaves  or  loss  in  palatabiUty. 
(5)  The  corn  is  gotten  off  the  field  so  this  can  be  used  for  other 
purposes  and  the  feed  is  also  available  during  bad  weather  in 
winter  without  inconveniencing  the  feeder. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  silo  method  of  feeding  are  as 
follows:  (1)  Cost  of  silo  and  filling  machinery.  This  should 
also  include  interest,  taxes,  insurance,  depreciation,  repairs, 
operating  expenses,  etc.  (2)  Hauling  in  from  the  field,  with 
high-priced  labor  at  summer  wages,  the  large  amount  of  water 
in  green  corn.     Corn  at  this  time  is  about  70  per  cent,  water. 


THE    DAIRY    COW  159 

The  shock  corn  after  (hyino-  contains  30  per  cent,  or  less  of 
water. 

Harris,  who  was  quoted  previously  says:  ''Most  feeders 
are  now  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  silo  will  make  from  20 
to  25  per  cent,  more  beef  or  mutton  by  saving  the  wastc^ 
of  corn  stalks,  or  stover,  and  preserving  its  maximum 
feeding  value."  To  offset  this  one  has  the  added  expense  of 
the  silo.  Taking  all  things  into  consideration,  it  looks  to  the 
author  as  if  the  silo  should  not  be  the  first  adjunct  to  the 
livestock  farm.  While  it  is  a  good  thing,  there  are  other 
things  that  are  more  necessary  in  getting  started.  After 
one  has  a  start  and  can  afford  it  and  wants  to  increase  the  pi'o- 
ductive  capacity  of  his  farm,  the  silo  is  in  order. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  silage  is  especially  valuable  on 
account  of  its  succulence  or  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it 
contains  considerable  water.  But  water  is  water  and  the 
water  in  the  corn  stalk  is  no  better  than  the  water  in  the  well. 
The  latter  can  be  pumped  more  cheaply  than  the  former  can 
be  hauled  from  the  field. 

Time  to  Cut  Corn  for  Silage. — Some  people  in  the  Northern 
States  grow  a  southern  or  fodder  corn  for  silage  or  fodder 
purposes.  This  is  planted  thick  and  produces  no  ears.  B}- 
this  means  a  large  amount  of  a  roughage  is  produced  per  acre. 
But  this  is  not  the  best  kind  of  feed  on  account  of  the  imma- 
ture stage  at  which  the  corn  is  cut. 

The  corn  plant  is  a  machine  in  itself  which  develops  for  the 
purpose  of  making  the  ear.  When  immature  corn  is  put  into 
the  silo,  the  plant  is  destroyed  before  it  has  had  a  chance  to 
do  that  for  which  it  was  developed.  Scientific  investigations 
also  have  shown  that  an  acre  of  corn  will  do  the  most  work  or 
make  feeds  for  animals  the  most  rapidly  immediately  before 
and  up  to  the  time  the  corn  on  the  cob  becomes  dented  and 
glazed. 

To  take  this  reasoning  a  step  farther,  the  corn  stalk  is  the 
least  digestible  and  the  corn  grain  the  most  digestible  of  the 
corn  plant.  Again,  as  pointed  out  previously,  improved  cattle 
must  have  a  liberal  allowance  of  concentrates  in  their  rations. 
Besides,  the  corn  plant  is  a  carbohydrate  feed.  If,  therefore, 
the  corn  is  allowed  to  grow  well  toward  maturity  and  if  then 


160  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

some  protein  roughage  is  fed  along  with  the  corn  silage,  a 
better-balanced,  more  digestible  and  a  more  economical  ration 
is  produced.  The  rule  to  keep  in  mind,  therefore,  in  regard 
to  planting  corn  for  the  silo  is  to  plant  the  largest  corn  that 
will  come  to  maturity  in  the  given  locality.  The  time  to  cut 
the  corn  for  the  silo  is  the  same  as  that  for  corn  to  be  put  into 
the  shock  to  be  husked  later.  This  is  when  the  kernels  are 
dented  and  glazed  and  when  the  lower  leaves  are  dry. 

Filling  the  Silo. — There  are  only  a  few  necessary  precau- 
tions in  regard  to  filling  the  silo.  It  should  be  filled  rai:>idly 
and  the  corn  be  well  distributed  and  well  packed.  A  man, 
preferably  of  heavy  weight,  should  be  kept  in  the  silo  while  it 
is  being  filled  to  distribute  and  tramp  the  cut  corn.  It  should 
l)e  especially  well  tramped  around  the  outside. 

Kind  of  Silo. — There  are  two  principal  types  of  silos,  the 
pit  or  underground  silo  and  the  above-ground  silo.  The 
former  can  be  built  only  in  a  dry  country  where  there  is  not 
too  much  water  in  the  soil.  This,  at  times  is  somewhat 
dangerous  on  account  of  poisonous  gases  settling  in  them. 
Before  going  into  a  pit  silo,  one  should  let  down  a  lighted 
lantern.  If  it  goes  out,  there  is  danger.  Under  such  condi- 
tions a  current  of  air  should  be  forced  into  the  bottom  by 
means  of  a  fan. 

By  far  the  most  common  type  of  silo  is  the  above-ground 
silo.  This  is  built  in  many  different  ways.  The  kind  of  silo 
one  builds  is  immaterial  except  for  himself  and  for  his  own 
farm.  A  silo,  however,  should  not  be  built  too  wide  but 
should  be  built  high.  It  has  been  said  that  adding  10  feet 
to  the  height  of  a  40-foot  silo  doubles  its  capacity.  A  silo 
should  never  be  built  so  wide  that  in  using  the  silage  it  can- 
not be  taken  down  fast  enough  to  prevent  spoiling.  Silos 
range  from  12  to  30  feet  in  diameter  and  from  30  to  75  feet 
in  height.  A  good  dimension  is  16  feet  in  diameter  and  40 
feet  in  height. 

Use  of  Beef  Bull  in  Dairy  Herd. — Calves  from  inferior  cows 
when  sired  by  a  dairy  bull  will  not  make  good  dairy  cows  and 
have  very  little  value  as  beef  animals.  If  then,  inferior  cows 
are  bred  to  a  good  beef  bull,  the  calves  will  make  good  beef 
animals  and  this  will  add  considerably  to  the  income  from  the 
dairy  herd. 


THE    DAIRY    COW  161 

The  objection  is  at  once  raised  that  one  cannot  afford  to 
keep  two  bulls.  But  with  the  practice  of  community  breed- 
ing this  is  easily  possible. 

MANURE 

The  manure  from  the  dairy  herd  is  one  of  the  sources  of 
profit  from  the  dairy  farm.  It  is  by  saving  this  and  putting 
it  back  on  the  land  that  the  fertility  and  productiveness  of 
soil  is  maintained. 

Manure  should  be  handled  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
labor.  Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  haul  the  wagon  or  manure 
spreader  into  the  barn,  load  the  manure  and  take  it  directly 
to  the  fields.  It  should  be  spread  evenly  and  not  too  thick. 
In  hilly  regions  it  is  thought  this  leads  to  the  loss  of  too  much 
of  the  fertilizing  constituents  through  washing.  But  these 
are  made  soluble  only  by  warm  weather.  So  when  the  snow 
melts  in  the  spring  or  the  early  spring  rains  come  little  harm 
is  done.  Even  if  some  of  the  fertilizer  did  wash  away,  the 
loss  would  not  equal  the  cost  of  an  extra  handling  if  the 
manure  were  left  till  summer.  Besides,  there  would  be  loss 
in  strength  in  exposing  the  manure  to  the  weather  in  the  yard. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Cattle  and  especially  dairy  cows  are  subject  to  tuberculosis, 
a  disease  similar  to  tuberculosis  in  the  human  family.  It  is 
thought  by  many  that  the  disease  may  be  transmitted  from 
cattle  to  the  human  and  especially  to  children.  If  this  is  so, 
it  is  most  likely  to  happen  by  drinking  milk  from  infected 
cattle. 

All  cows  that  have  tuberculosis  do  not  have  the  disease  in 
the  udder  but  when  they  do  get  it  in  the  udder  there  is  danger 
in  using  the  milk.  Milk  from  such  cows  should  either  not  be 
used  at  all  or  should  be  pasteurized  or  sterilized  before  it  is 
used.  Pigs  also  are  subject  to  the  disease  and  get  it  very 
easily  by  drinking  tuberculous  milk. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  germ  disease.     The  germs  (tubercle  bacilli) 

may  be  inhaled  or  may  be  ingested  (taken  with  the  food). 

If  the  resistance  of  the  body  is  not  strong  enough  to  withstand 

these  germs,  they  will  lodge  in  the  lungs  or  the  intestinal  wall, 

11 


162  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

or  get  into  the  blood  and  be  carried  to  other  parts.  Where  one 
of  these  germs  lodges  and  starts  to  grow  it  forms  a  colony. 
This  produces  a  swelling.  The  germs  continue  to  grow  on  the 
outside  of  this  swelUng.  Finally  the  germs  in  the  interior  of 
the  swelhng  die  and  produce  pus.  Sometimes  pus  dries. 
The  disease  consumes  the  tissue  of  the  animal  and  gives  off 
poisonous  products. 

Tuberculosis  will  destroy  an  animal  in  time  and  will  spread 
from  one  animal  to  another  in  a  herd.  Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  buying  animals  that  are  tested  and  free  from  the 
disease.  A  dairy  herd  also  should  be  tested  every  year  to 
make  sure  that  it  is  free  from  the  disease.  If  any  animals  are 
found  that  react  to  the  test  (have  the  disease),  they  should 
at  once  be  disposed  of  or  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  herd. 

Different  States  have  different  laws  for  disposing  of  tubercu- 
lous animals.  Some  States  kill  them  and  pay  a  fixed  sum. 
The  State  livestock  sanitary  board,  if  there  is  one,  should  be 
consulted.  At  any  rate,  tuberculous  cows  can  be  sold  on  the 
regular  market  for  slaughter  where  they  pass  government 
inspection.  Only  about  one-tenth  or  less  of  tuberculous 
cows  are  entirely  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  consumption. 
The  disease  is  often  light  and  confined  to  the  lungs  and  in- 
testinal glands  which  are  destroyed.  Where  the  disease  has 
spread  through  the  entire  carcass,  the  whole  is  condemned, 
and  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers.  Valuable 
breeding  cows  that  have  the  disease  can  be  kept  for  breeding 
purposes  by  keeping  them  isolated. 

Tuberculin  Test. — There  is  no  cure  for  tuberculosis.  The 
tuberculin  test  is  a  means  of  testing  cows  for  tuberculosis  to 
detect  the  presence  of  the  disease.  The  test  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  cattle  by  veterinarians  but  anyone  can  apply  it. 
The  agency  employed  is  tuberculin.  This  is  prepared  from 
the  germs  that  cause  tuberculosis,  the  tubercle  bacilli.  These 
are  cultivated  artificially  and  then  an  extract  is  taken  and  this 
is  treated  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Tuberculin  is 
entirely  free  from  tubercle  bacilli  or  any  other  germs,  and  can 
be  obtained  from  the  State  livestock  sanitary  board  or  from 
commercial  firms. 

In  performing  the  test,  cows  are  kept  under  normal  condi- 


THE    DAIRY    COW  163 

tions  and  their  average  temperature  is  ol^tained  by  taking 
temperatures  at  10:00  a.m.,  2:00  p.m.  and  6:00  p.m.  and  averag- 
ing these.  In  taking  temperatures  the  thermometer  is  in- 
serted in  the  rectum.  The  thermometer  should  be  left  in 
about  two  minutes.  If  an  operator  uses  several  thermometers 
he  can  test  a  large  herd  at  once.  The  same  evening  the  cows 
are  inoculated  with  tuberculin  at  the  rate  of  2  cubic  centimeters 
for  each  1000  pounds  of  live  weight.  The  cows  are  inoculated 
from  8:00  to  10:00  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The  tuberculin 
is  injected  under  the  skin  with  a  hypodermic  syringe.  The 
point  selected  for  the  injection  is  back  of  the  shoulder  or  at 
any  other  place  where  the  skin  is  loose  and  there  are  plenty 
of  blood  vessels  underneath.  The  needle  of  the  syringe  should 
be  put  through  the  skin  so  that  the  point  is  free  underneath. 
The  material  is  absorbed  by  the  blood  and  carried  throughout 
the  body.  If  the  cow  has  tuberculosis  this  tuberculin  will 
cause  a  fever. 

Temperatures  are  taken  the  following  day  at  intervals  of 
two  hours  beginning  at  6:00  a.  m.  If  the  temperature  rises 
during  the  day  and  falls  again  toward  evening  and  if  the  rise 
is  2  or  more  degrees  or  if  it  goes  to  104  or  105,  an  animal  almost 
certainly  has  the  disease.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  the  fall  in  temperature  above  mentioned  is  necessary. 
Sometimes  cows  are  kept  under  abnormal  conditions  or  again 
they  may  be  sick  otherwise  so  that  the  temperature  goes  up. 
But  this  would  not  be  an  indication  of  tuberculosis.  To  get  a 
reaction  the  cows  must  be  kept  under  normal  conditions,  must 
be  in  normal  health  and  there  must  be  a  rise  and  a  fall  in 
temperature.  But  the  fall  as  a  rule  is  not  back  to  normal  by 
the  close  of  the  day. 

When  the  test  is  properly  carried  out  it  is  almost  absolutely 
accurate.  But  sometimes  when  cows  are  in  advanced  stages 
of  the  disease  they  will  not  respond  to  the  test.  Also,  one 
test  should  not  follow  the  one  preceding  for  four  or  more 
months. 

It  is  said  that  dishonest  people  sometimes  keep  their  cattle 
''plugged.''  This  means  that  they  keep  injecting  tuberculin 
into  them  at  intervals  of  four  months  or  less  so  that  they  will 
not  respond  to  tests  by  State  officials  or  others. 


104  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  test  does  not  give  any  indication  as  to  the  stage  of  the 
disease.  A  cow  in  which  the  disease  is  just  starting  may 
react  Hke  one  in  which  the  disease  is  weU  advanced. 

During  the  first  stage  of  the  disease  no  one  can  make 
a  diagnosis  by  physical  means.  After  the  disease  has  become 
well  advanced  a  cow  may  show  a  lack  of  thrift  or  may  even 
lose  flesh.  She  may  or  may  not  cough.  These  symptoms  may 
also  result  from  other  causes. 

Upon  postmortem  examination  a  tuberculous  animal  will 
show  tubercles  in  the  lungs,  along  the  intestines,  in  the  glands 
along  the  intestinal  wall,  on  the  inside  of  the  chest  cavity,  in 
the  glands  of  the  neck  or  in  some  of  the  other  body  glands. 
These  tubercles  are  enlargements,  inflamed  around  the  out- 
side, with  pus  in  the  center.  Sometimes  this  is  soft  and 
sometimes  it  is  hard  but  always  it  has  a  gritty  nature  when 
cut  through  with  a  knife.  This  grittiness  is  due  to  limy  sub- 
stances left  by  the  germs.  The  pus  is  caused  by  germs  dying 
on  the  inside  of  a  tubercle  for  the  want  of  food. 

Milk  from  tuberculous  cows  should  not  be  fed  to  calves  or 
to  pigs,  except  after  pasteurization  or  sterilization.  Pigs 
are  very  easily  infected  and  the  disease  works  very  rapidly 
with  them.  The  author  knows  of  40  fall  pigs  that  died  of 
this  disease  by  January.  Cattle  may  live  several  years  and 
in  fact  may  sometimes  have  the  disease  and  die  of  old  age. 
Animals  that  are  strong  constitutionally  and  are  well  fed 
will  not  contract  the  disease  as  readily  or  succumb  as  quickly 
as  those  that  are  not  so  strong. 

ABORTION 

Another  disease  which  causes  great  losses  among  dairy 
cows  is  contagious  abortion.  This  is  also  a  germ  disease. 
The  germ  in  this  case  lives  and  works  in  the  vagina  and  causes 
the  foetus  to  be  expelled. 

This  disease  may  be  carried  by  the  bull  or  by  cows  coming 
into  contact  with  each  other  so  that  the  germs  get  from  one 
to  another.  Litter  or  manure  may  also  carry  the  germs  and 
spread  the  disease.  Before  buying  animals  or  using  a  herd 
bull  from  another  herd  one  should  make  sure  that  the  herd 
is  free  from  this  disease. 


THE    DAIRY    COW  165 

If  the  disease  gets  into  the  herd  the  infected  cows  should 
ho  thoroughly  isolated  and  well  washed  and  disinfected. 
The  washing  and  disinfecting  include  the  exterior  parts  and 
extend  well  into  the  vagina.  The  sheath  of  the  bull  also 
should  be  disinfected  after  each  service.  Cures  for  this  dis- 
ease have  not  as  yet  been  well  worked  out  and  prevention  is 
of  primary  importance.  In  case  of  an  infection,  however, 
State  authorities  might  be  asked  whether  they  know  of  a 
cure. 

Sometimes  cows  throw  their  calves  from  accidental  injury. 
This  must  not  be  confused  with  contagious  abortion.  If  one 
loses  by  abortion  two  or  three  calves  for  which  he  cannot  assign 
a  cause,  contagious  abortion  should  be  suspected,  and  the 
precautions  named  above  should  be  taken. 

SHOULD  COWS  FRESHEN  IN  SPRING  OR  FALL? 

It  seems  that  the  natural  time  for  animals  to  give  birth  to 
young  is  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  Some  animals  have  their 
young  only  at  this  season  but  the  domestic  cow  can  be  bred 
to  have  her  calf  at  an^-  time  during  the  year. 

Spring  Freshening. — The  advantages  of  freshening  in  the 
spring  are  as  follows:  (1)  The  weather  is  warm  and  not  much 
shelter  is  needed.  (2)  The  cows  can  go  out  on  pasture  which 
is  the  best  kind  of  an  environment  for  milk  production.  (3) 
Dry  cows  can  be  wintered  in  a  cheaper  barn  than  cows  giving 
milk,  because  as  a  cow  gives  milk  she  loses  heat  in  the  form  of 
warmth  of  milk.  (4)  The  calves  can  go  on  grass  which  is  the 
best  kind  of  feed  in  addition  to  milk. 

Fall  Freshening. — When  cows  come  fresh  in  the  fall,  the 
advantages  are:  (1)  The  cows  give  more  milk  during  the  winter 
when  the  price  for  dairy  products  is  higher.  (2)  When  the 
cows  go  onto  pasture  in  the  spring  they  increase  their  milk 
flow  and  thus  give  a  larger  total  quantity  of  milk  during  the 
year.  (3)  The  cows  are  dry  during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer  when  the  flies  are  bad  and  there  is  the  greatest  rush 
of  work  on  the  farm.  (4)  Neither  the  cows  while  they  are  in 
milk  nor  the  calves  when  they  are  small  are  exposed  so  much 
to  flies  and  mosquitoes.  (5)  The  most  milking  is  done  in  the 
winter  when  labor  is  cheap. 


160  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

It  seems  to  the  author  that,  under  present  concUtions,  when 
more  cows  come  fresh  in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall,  there  is 
more  opportunity  for  profit  from  the  winter  dairy  than  from 
the  summer  dairy.  To  be  sure  a  better  barn  is  required  but 
the  other  factors  more  than  overbalance  this. 

BUILDING  UP  A  HERD 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  one  in  the  dairj^  business 
constantly  to  build  up  his  herd.  This  is  done  in  two  waj^s: 
by  buying  better  bulls,  and  by  disposing  of  the  inferior  cows. 
The  value  of  a  good  sire  has  been  discussed.  The  inferior 
cows  are  culled  out  by  means  of  the  milk  test.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  Babcock  test  is  largely  used.  Some  cows  may  give 
a  large  quantity  of  milk  poor  in  fat  and  others  may  give  less 
milk  but  richer  milk,  so  the  only  way  to  find  out  whether  a 
cow  is  worth  keeping  or  not  is  to  test  her. 

Tests  should  be  made  in  every  herd  in  the  country.  Inves- 
tigation has  shown  that  about  one-third  of  the  cows  in  the 
herds  of  the  country  are  non-producers.  That  is,  the  cows  eat 
as  much  as  or  more  than  they  return  in  the  form  of  milk. 

To  make  the  test  accurately  the  cows'  milk  should  be 
weighed  at  every  milking.  This  is  very  easily  done  by  hang- 
ing the  pail  with  the  milk  on  a  spring  balance  in  going  from  the 
cow  to  the  can  where  the  milk  pail  is  emptied  and  then  record- 
ing the  weight  on  a  sheet  handily  arranged  for  the  purpose. 
Once  each  month  for  three  days  the  milk  from  each  cow^  is  well 
stirred  and  sampled.  This  is  put  into  a  bottle  with  some  pre- 
servative and  at  the  close  of  this  period  the  whole  is  tested. 
The  testing  may  be  done  at  home  by  the  farmer  himself  or  by 
a  regular  employee  of  a  testing  association  or  by  a  creamery. 

For  practical  purposes  good  results  can  be  obtained  by 
weighing  the  milk  for  about  three  days  of  each  month  when 
the  samples  are  taken.  This  should  be  at  a  fixed  time  each 
month. 

A  testing  outfit  may  be  purchased  from  any  creamery  supply 
house.  A  small  outfit  can  be  had  for  a  few  dollars.  To 
make  the  test  weigh  or  measure  out  18  grams  of  milk  and 
put  this  into  the  test  bottle.  Then  measure  out  18  grams  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  pour  this  into  the  same  bottle  in  such  a 


THE    DAIRY    COW  167 

wa}^  that  it  will  run  down  the  side  of  the  bottle.  The  acid 
being  heavier  than  the  milk  will  go  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle.  Next  mix  this  by  giving  the  bottle  a  rotary  motion 
till  the  casein  is  well  dissolved.  Following  this,  put  the 
bottle  into  the  tester  and  turn  for  four  or  five  minutes.  Then 
add  enough  hot  water  to  bring  the  fat  well  up  into  the  neck 
of  the  bottle  so  that  it  comes  within  the  graduated  part  of 
the  neck.  After  this  turn  two  minutes  more  and  then  take  the 
bottle  out  and  read  the  per  cent,  of  butter  fat.  This  can  be 
done  by  subtracting  the  figure  beneath  the  fat  column  from 
the  figure  above.  But  as  a  rule  a  pair  of  dividers  are  used. 
Place  one  point  at  the  upper  and  the  other  point  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  fat  column.  Then  place  one  point  at  zero  and  note 
on  what  figure  the  other  point  falls.  This  gives  the  reading. 
To  build  up  a  herd,  cows  should  also  be  selected  for  con- 
stitution, size,  vigor,  capacity,  udder,  etc. 

DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Dual-purpose  cows  are  those  that  give  a  lot  of  milk  and 
at  the  same  time  when  they  are  slaughtered  furnish  a  lot  of 
beef.  All  cows  give  milk  and  make  beef.  The  dairy  cow  has 
been  bred  to  devote  the  most  of  her  energies  to  milk-making 
while  the  beef  cow  is  busier  in  making  meat.  Both  of  these 
two  types  of  cows  do  all  the  work  they  are  capable  of  doing. 
How  then  is  a  cow  going  to  do  both?  Simply  by  being  big 
enough  to  do  both  things  at  the  same  time.  This  is  the  first 
and  main  consideration  of  a  dual-purpose  cow.  She  must 
also  be  backed  by  good  milk  records.  If  she  is  a  large  cow 
and  is  well  built  from  the  standpoint  of  dairy  conformation 
and  at  the  same  time  carries  plenty  of  meat  on  her  ribs  and 
back  she  ought  to  be  pretty  good  for  both  purposes.  But  it 
goes  without  saying  that  such  a  cow  cannot  do  either  job  as 
well  as  either  of  the  two  specialized  types  of  cattle. 

The  breeds  that  may  be  used  for  this  dual-purpose  work  are 
the  milking  shorthorn,  red  polled,  and  brown  Swiss.  The 
last  comes  from  Switzerland  and  the  other  two  from  England. 
The  brown  Swiss  are  brown  and  yellowish,  the  red  polls  are 
red  and  the  shorthorns  are  red,  red  and  white,  roan  and  white. 


168 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


The  milking  type  of  shorthorn  cattle  was  developed  by 
Thomas  Bates,  of  England.  These  are  frequently  spoken  of  as 
Bates  cattle  or  rather  Bates  shorthorns.  Not  many  of  this 
type  of  cattle  have  as  yet  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States.  American  shorthorns  up  to  the  present  time,  on 
account  of  Western  range  conditions,  are  mostly  of  the  beef 
type.  Interest  in  milking  shorthorns  is  growing,  however. 
This  is  because  fewer  beef  cattle  are  being  produced  on  the 


^ 


Fig.  26. — Red  polled  cow.     Dual-purpose  type.     (Photo  from  Jean  Dulutli 

farm.) 


Western  range  and  more  on  the  farms  of  the  country.  The 
range  cow,  because  she  was  not  milked,  could  not  give  more 
than  enough  milk  for  her  calf.  The  general  farmer  frequently 
wishes  to  milk  his  cows  as  well  as  to  raise  young  stock,  either 
to  sell  as  feeders,  or  to  finish  for  market  himself.  Milking 
shorthorns  or  other  dual-purpose  cattle  are  better  adapted  to 
this  than  the  strictly  beef  type  of  Scotch  shorthorns.  The  red 
polled  breed  is  well  adapted  to  this  kind  of  work  because  it 
has  always  been  bred  for  dual  service. 


THE    DAIRY    COW  169 

BLOAT  IN  CATTLE 

When  cattle  graze  on  fresh  green  clover  or  alfalfa  they  fre- 
quently bloat.  This  is  caused  by  a  fermentation  of  the 
material  in  the  paunch  which  causes  gas.  This  gas  distends 
the  paunch  and  may  burst  it  or  may  kill  the  individual  by 
pressing  against  the  lungs  and  interfering  with  respiration. 
This  may  kill  the  animal  by  suffocation. 

To  prevent  bloating  animals  should  be  accustomed  to  such 
feeds  as  cause  bloat  gradually,  and  then  be  kept  on  them  con- 
tinuously. Frozen  legumes  are  dangerous  in  this  respect 
and  should  be  used  with  care. 

A  case  of  bloating  can  be  remedied  by  puncturing  the  paunch 
with  a  trocar  or  a  jackknife  so  as  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape. 
The  opening  is  made  in  the  hollow  space  in  front  of  the  hip 
on  the  left  side.  In  such  a  case  the  after-treatment  must  be 
such  as  to  allow  the  wound  to  heal. 

In  the  Breeders'  Gazette  for  June  24,  1915,  D.  J.  Healy  and 
J.  W.  Nutter,  of  the  Kentucky  experiment  station,  discuss  a 
recent  remedy  they  have  worked  out  for  this  difficulty. 
They  say: 

'*  For  the  present  we  strongly  recommend  for  acute  bloating  1  quart  of  a 
1^  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin,  followed  by  placing  a  wooden  block  in 
the  animal's  mouth  and  gentle  exercise  if  the  animal  can  be  gotten  up. 
Formalin  is  a  trade  name  for  a  40  per  cent,  solution  of  formaldehyde  gas 
in  water  and  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store  for  40  cents  a  pint. 
One-half  ounce  of  formalin  in  1  quart  of  water  makes  the  proper  solution 
with  which  to  drench  the  animal. 

"Lad's  Oona  bloated  badly  on  white  clover  June  L3,  1913.  She  was 
drenched  with  1  liter  of  water  containing  40  cubic  centimeters  of  for- 
malin; a  block  of  wood  was  at  the  same  time  placed  in  her  mouth,  thus 
keeping  it  open.  At  the  end  of  twenty  minutes  she  had  entirely  re- 
covered. No  bad  after-effects  followed  this  treatment.  Valentine's 
Valentine  2nd  bloated  badly  on  white  clover  May  23,  1915.  She  was 
drenched  with  300  cubic  centimeters  of  a  4  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin, 
and  a  block  of  wood  was  placed  in  her  mouth.  At  the  end  of  twenty- 
five  minutes  she  had  entirely  recovered.  No  bad  after-effects  followed 
this  treatment.  These  and  four  other  cases  of  clover  bloat  were  promptly 
and  thoroughly  relieved  by  the  administration  of  formaldehyde." 

Bloat  affects  sheep  similarly  and  they  should  be  handled 
in  a  similar  manner.  With  both  sheep  and  cattle,  however, 
prevention  is  of  greater  importance  than  cure  because  the 
animals  may  be  dead  when  found. 


CHAPTER  IX 
BEEF  CATTLE 

A  dairy  cow  is  a  cow  that  gives  milk  and  makes  beef. 
A  beef  cow  is  one  that  makes  beef  and  gives  milk.  Both 
cows  do  both  things,  but  one  is  better  at  one  thing  and  the 
other  at  the  other. 

Most  all  of  the  advice  given  as  to  the  dairy  cow  also  applies 
as  to  the  beef  cow.  The  latter  should  be  of  good  size,  consti- 
tution, quaHty,  capacity,  length  of  body,  etc.,  but  in  the  withers 
where  the  dairy  cow  shows  general  leanness  and  sharpness, 
the  beef  cow  should  be  fleshy,  and  broad  and  thick.  The  beef 
cow  should  be  heavily  meated  everywhere,  but  especially  on 
the  back  and  the  upper  part  of  sides  or  ribs.  These  are  the 
parts  from  which  the  high-priced  cuts  come  and  should  be  well 
filled  with  lean  meat  of  fine  quality. 

The  udder  or  milk-making  organ  of  the  beef  cow  lacks  the 
development  of  that  of  the  dairy  cow.  This  frequently  be- 
comes one  of  the  handicaps  of  the  beef  cow;  often  she  does 
not  give  enough  milk  to  raise  a  good  calf.  For  many  beef 
calves  used  for  show  purposes  a  nurse  cow  to  help  furnish 
milk  is  provided.  In  breeding  beef  cattle  the  cow  should  at 
least  give  milk  enough  to  raise  a  good  calf. 

Sometimes  calves  are  ''doubled  up."  Two  calves  are  put 
with  a  cow  and  the  other  cows  are  milked  for  dairy  purposes. 
Extra  calves  may  be  bought  and  put  with  a  cow.  This  may 
add  greatly  to  the  profit  obtained  from  a  herd. 

Dairy  cows  have  the  advantage  of  more  economical  pro- 
duction and  of  greater  returns  per  unit  area  but  suffer  a 
disadvantage  in  comparison  with  beef  cattle  in  that  they  re- 
quire more  labor  and  more  expenditure  for  shelter. 

One  man  can  care  for  and  feed  many  times  more  beef  cattle 
than  dairy  cattle.  Beef  cattle  are  not  milked  daily  in  winter, 
so  do  not  lose  so  much  heat.  They,  therefore,  need  less 
shelter.     They  have  calves  which  do  the  milking,  but  these 

170 


BEEF    CATTLE  171 

usuall}^  come  in  the  spring  and  milk  only  during  the  summer, 
so  that  the  beef  cow  is  dry  during  the  winter.  Beef  cattle 
also  carry  more  fat  and  are  fed  more  of  the  fattening  feeds 
which  also  produce  more  heat. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  advantages  of  one  just  about 
balance  the  advantages  of  the  other.  Consequently  it  remains 
a  matter  of  individual  choice  or  possibility,  as  to  whether  beef 
or  dairy  cattle  shall  be  kept  on  one's  farm. 

The  necessity  of  livestock  on  a  farm  is  very  apparent. 
Dairying  is  especially  adapted  to  older  sections  of  the  country 
where  labor  is  plentiful  and  not  too  high  in  price;  also  to  farms 
where  there  are  several  children  whose  profitable  and  judicious 
employment  not  only  adds  to  the  revenues  of  the  farm  but 
also  to  the  highest  development  and  proper  habits  of  the 
children.  Where  the  conditions  do  not  favor  dairying,  beef 
cattle  should  by  all  means  be  adopted. 

Mature  beef  cattle  are  fed  either  a  maintenance  or  a  fatten- 
ing ration.  The  former  is  used  when  the  cows  are  just  being 
wintered  and  the  latter  when  they  are  being  prepared  for 
market.     In  this  they  differ  from  dairy  cattle. 

Beef  calves  are  usually  allowed  to  run  with  their  dams 
till  they  are  about  six  months  old.  At  the  same  time,  they 
should  have  grass,  or  in  winter,  hay  and  grain.  They  should 
have  salt  and  water  at  all  times.  The  weaning  should  be 
gradual  to  a  good  ration  of  hay  or  grass  and  grain,  with  salt 
and  water.  The  protein  feeds  must  be  supplied  here  the  same 
as  with  dairy  calves.     Exercise  should  be  given  at  all  times. 

Baby  Beef. — By  baby  beef  is  meant  beef  from  young  cattle 
that  are  put  on  the  market  before  they  have  come  to  maturity. 
Such  cattle  must  be  especially  well  fed  from  calfhood  imtil 
they  are  sold.  This  is  at  about  eighteen  months  of  age.  They 
must  be  '' crowded"  or  fed  all  they  can  eat,  all  the  time. 
They  must  be  made  both  to  grow  and  fatten  at  the  same  time. 
They  cost  less  to  produce  than  older  beef  cattle.  This  is  true 
because  a  young  animal  alwaj^s  makes  cheaper  gains  than  an 
older  one.  But  if  they  are  sold  too  light  the  capacity  of  the 
machine  as  a  whole  has  not  been  reached  on  account  of  its 
small  size.  The  animal  has  been  cut  off  before  it  has  reached 
the  end  for  which  it  was  developed.     When  such  calves  are 


172 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


Fig.   27. — Shorthorn    bull.     Beef   type.     Show    condition. 


Fig.  28. — Shorthorn  cow.     Beef  type.     Show  condition  but  a  little  patchy. 

(Hildebrand.) 


BEEF    CATTLE  173 

born  in  the  spring  and  sold  at  eighteen  months  of  age  they  are 
*' carried  over"  only  one  winter.  This  is  a  point  in  their  favor 
as  less  money  is  spent  on  shelter  for  them. 

Feeder  Cattle. — Many  sections  of  the  country  are  primarily 
adapted  to  the  production  of  forage  crops.  There  are  only 
a  few  places  in  any  country  where  grass  or  hay  alone  will  make 
cattle  good  enough  to  be  in  good  demand  at  the  market  centers. 
In  such  places  the  grass  is  especially  abundant  and  exceed- 
ingl}^  good.  In  other  places  beef  cattle  must  have  grain  in 
addition  to  their  roughages.     Out  of  this  circumstance  has 


Fig.   20. — A  group  of  shorthorns.      University  of  Illinois 

grown  the  trade  in  feeder  or  stock  cattle,  and  the  cattle-feeding 
business. 

Feeders  or  stock  cattle  are  cattle  that  have  been  pretty 
well  grown  and  are  purchased  by  the  cattle-feeder  and  fattened. 
Handling  such  cattle  is  largely  a  fattening  proposition,  calHng 
for  corn  and  other  fattening  feeds.  Both  growing  and  fatten- 
ing cattle  are  legitimate  and  occupy  an  important  place  in 
the  cattle  industry,  but  it  seems  that  for  the  average  general 
purpose  farm  cattle  can  be  grown  and  finished  at  the  same 
place  with  the  largest  amount  of  profit.  Cattle  then  can  be 
fattened  with  due  regard  for  the  way  in  which  they  were  bred 
and  grown.  Besides,  this  plan  means  a  great  saving  in  trans- 
portation charges,  dealers  commissions,  etc. 

The  rules  for  feeding  growing  animals  apply  to  the  fattening 
of  animals,  except  that  less  of  protein  and  more  of  carbohy- 
drate feeds  are  used ;  also  less  roughages  and  more  concentrates. 


174  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

There  are  different  breeds  of  beef  cattle,  all  of  which  are 
good.  The  choice  of  a  breed,  therefore,  is  largely  a  personal 
matter.  The  breed  is  not  the  most  important  thing.  The 
first  consideration  should  be  that  the  cattle  are  properly  bred, 
fed,  and  cared  for.  The  standard  breeds  are  the  shorthorn, 
polled  Durham,  Aberdeen  Angus,  Hereford  and  Galloway. 

Shorthorn. — The  shorthorns  include  a  strain  of  cattle  that 
have  both  dairy  and  beef  characteristics.  Consequently  are 
called  milking  shorthorns  or  dual-purpose  cattle.  Here, 
however,  only  the  beef  type  of  shorthorns  is  to  be  considered. 
This  breed  from  the  numerical  standpoint  is  the  most  popular. 
They  are  a  good  all-round  beef  animal  well  adapted  to  modern 
methods  of  farming.  Shorthorns  are  red,  red  and  white,  roan 
and  white.  They  were  developed  in  Great  Britain  many 
years  ago  by  breeders  of  exceptional  ability.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  Colling  Brothers,  Bakewell,  Bates, 
Booth  and  Cruickshank.  They  were  brought  to  the  United 
States  at  an  early  date  and  have  been  popular  here  ever  since. 

Polled  Durham. — The  polled  Durhams  are  simply  an  off- 
shoot of  the  shorthorn  breed.  They  were  developed  without 
horns.  This  strain  was  developed  in  the  United  States  and 
originated  from  native  cattle  outside  of  any  breed.  Such 
native  mully  cows  were  bred  to  shorthorn  bulls  and  the  off- 
spring were  not  eligible  to  registry  in  the  shorthorn  breed  so 
the  Polled  Durham  Registration  Association  was  started. 
These  cattle  are  called  single-standard  polled  Durhams. 

Later  also  were  found  hornless  individuals  among  shorthorns 
and  these  were  also  developed.  These  are  eligible  to  registry 
in  both  the  shorthorn  and  the  polled  Durham  associations, 
and  are  called  double-standard  polled  Durhams. 

Aberdeen  Angus. — This  breed  of  beef  cattle  originated  in 
Scotland.  It  is  also  an  old  well-developed  breed  of  beef  cattle 
and  is  especially  noted  for  the  fine  quahty  and  large  propor- 
tion of  lean  meat  produced.  Cattle  of  this  breed  have  been 
the  most  persistent  winners  in  the  fat-stock  shows  of  this 
country. 

Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  have  no  horns  and  are  black.  They 
are  very  strong  in  these  characteristics,   and  this,    together 


BEEF    CATTLE 


175 


with    their   good    quality,    makes   them    very    vahia])le   beef 
animals.     A  bunch  of  grade  or  mixed  cows  of  all  colors  and 


Fig.  30. — Aberdeen  Angus  cow  on  pasture. 


...^ 


Fig.  31. — Hereford  cow  on  pasture. 


all  types  can  be  bred  to  an  Aberdeen  Angus  bull  and  practi- 
cally all  of  the  calves  will  be  black  and  hornless.     They  will 


176 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


also  be  of  good  beef  type  and  good  quality.  This  saves  the 
work  of  dehorning  and  gives  one  a  fine  bunch  of  uniform  beef 
calves  even  from  dairy  cows. 

The  Angus  is  not  quite  so  wide  in  the  back  and  hips  as  the 
shorthorn  but  is  very  thickly  fleshed  all  over  the  body  with 
a  fine  quality  of  flesh.  They  are  also  rather  fine  in  bone. 
Hence  they  dress  out  well  when  slaughtered.  They  are  not 
quite  so  large  as  the  shorthorns. 


Fig.  32.— Galloway  cow.      (Hildobrand.) 


Hereford. — The  Hereford  is  an  English  breed  of  beef 
cattle  having  horns,  a  red  body  and  a  white  head.  The 
white  also  extends  back  on  top  of  the  neck  and  on  the  under 
side  of  the  neck  including  the  dewlap  and  lower  parts  of  the 
legs.     There  is  also  some  white  on  the  under  side  of  the  body. 

In  conformation  this  breed  is  very  broad  in  the  back  but 
formerly  were  somewhat  light  in  the  hind  quarters.  In  this, 
however,  in  late  years,  there  has  been  considerable  improve- 
ment. The  Herefords  are  also  an  old  well-developed  breed 
and  are  especially  well  adapted  to  grazing.     On  this  account 


BEEF    CATTLE  177 

they  were  extensively  used  on  the  Southwestern  ranges.  They 
are  good  beef  cattle  for  all  purposes.  The  Herefords  are  large 
and  w^ell  developed  in  constitution.  They  also  have  a  good 
quality  of  flesh. 

Galloway.^ — The  Galloway  breed  originated  in  Scotland 
many  years  ago.  It  is  hornless  and  black  hke  the  Aberdeen 
Angus  breed  but  has  a  much  heavier  coat  of  hair.  This  is  a 
valuable  characteristic  because  it  gives  these  animals  protec- 
tion from  cold  in  winter  and  from  flies  and  mosquitoes  in 
summer. 

The  breed  is  also  strong  in  transmitting  its  hornless  char- 
acteristic and  black  color  to  its  offspring.  Calves  will  feed 
out  as  a  uniform  bunch  in  color  and  otherwise.  The}-,  there- 
fore, make  a  good  appearance  on  the  market  and  sell  to  good 
advantage.  The  hide  of  the  Galloway  is  valuable  as  it  is  used 
for  making  fur  coats,  robes,  etc.  This  breed  also  is  well 
developed  in  length  of  body  and  length  of  hind  quarters. 

The  Galloway  is  somewhat  small  in  size,  but  it  will  stand 
coarse  feeds.  The  Galloway  can  perhaps  ''rough  it"  better 
than  the  other  breeds  mentioned.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  said  by  .some  that  they  will  not  respond  to  good  feeding 
as  well  as  the  others.  This,  however,  can  be  improved  in 
time. 


12 


CHAPTER  X 
SHEEP 

Sheep  are  four-footed  ruminating  animals.  They  are 
cloven-hoofed  like  cattle  and  their  meat  is  used  as  food  for 
humans.  These  animals  belong  to  the  ovine  family.  Meat 
from  the  mature  sheep  is  called  mutton  and  from  the  young 
it  is  called  lamb. 

Sheep  weigh  from  100  to  400  pounds  per  head,  liveweight. 
Since  they  are  ruminating  animals  they  can  use  a  large  amount 
of  roughage  in  their  rations.  The  principal  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  this  class  of  animals  is  that  their  outside  cover- 
ing is  wool  instead  of  hair.  The  value  of  wool  as  a  material 
from  which  cloth  is  made  is  well  recognized.  A  wool  garment 
is  warmer,  softer  and  lighter  than  one  made  of  cotton. 

WOOL 

A  hair  or  cotton  fiber  is  smooth,  cyhndrical,  fine  and  pro- 
portionately long.  It  is  usually  straight  but  sometimes  bent 
somewhat  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  curliness.  A  wool 
fiber  is  of  about  the  same  diameter  and  length  as  a  hair,  but 
instead  of  being  straight  or  curly  has  what  is  called  a  crimp. 

This  is  a  waviness  like  ^.^.^..^^^ The  finer  this  crimp 

or  the  shorter  the  waves  the  better  the  wool. 

A  piece  of  cloth  or  a  garment  made  from  wool  is  soft,  light 
and  warm.  It  is  soft  because  the  fibers  do  not  lie  so  close 
together  on  account  of  the  crimp.  When  pressed  together 
it  has  resihency  and  recovers  its  normal  shape.  This  is  also 
owing  to  the  crimp  and  the  elasticity  of  the  fiber.  It  is  light 
because  on  account  of  the  crimp  in  the  fiber  not  so  many 
fibers  are  needed  to  make  a  piece  of  cloth  of  a  given  thickness. 

Warmth.^ — The  warmth  of  a  wool  garment  again  lies  in  the 
crimp.  This  makes  the  garment  light  and  porous  and  encloses 
within  its  borders  a  large  amount  of  air.     It  is  the  air  that 

178 


SHEEP  179 

makes  it  warm.  Air  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat  and  if  this 
layer  of  air  within  the  piece  of  woolen  cloth  can  be  kept  quiet 
it  will  keep  the  heat  of  the  body  inside.  This  is  the  function 
of  a  garment  in  regulating  body  temperature.  It  keeps  heat 
from  leaving  the  body. 

Shrinking  of  Wool  Garments. — The  fact  that  a  wool  gar- 
ment shrinks  may  be  explained  as  follows:  A  hair  is  like  a 
straight  smooth  rod  or  tube.  But  wool  is  smooth  one  way 
and  rough  the  other  way.  When  drawn  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  one  way  the  wool  fiber  feels  smooth  and  the  other 
way  it  feels  rough.  This  is  because  it  has  projections  extend- 
ing outward  in  one  direction.  These  may  be  compared  with 
the  buds  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  in  the  spring.  It  is  easy 
to  run  the  hand  over  the  branch  one  way,  but  running  the  hand 
the  other  way  one  strikes  the  bud  obstructions.  A  hair 
or  cotton  fiber  is  perfectly  smooth  both  ways. 

When  a  wool  garment  is  washed,  it  is  heated  in  the  water. 
This  causes  the  fibers  to  expand  and  in  expanding  they  hook 
up  on  each  other  a  little  farther.  Upon  cooling  the  fibers 
contract  again  and  the  garment  is  that  much  smaller.  When 
the  garment  is  rubbed,  as  on  a  washboard,  it  makes  these 
points  hook  up  still  further  and  makes  the  garment  shrink 
worse.  When  the  garment  is  old  and  worn  so  that  many  of 
the  points  or  hooks  are  worn  off,  it  will  not  shrink  so  badly. 
A  wool  garment  made  of  combing  wool,  where  the  fibers  are 
all  laid  in  one  direction,  will  not  shrink. 

Yolk. — Most  wool  is  naturally  white  but  contains  more  or 
less  yolk.  This  is  an  oily  discharge  from  the  skin  to  keep 
the  wool  fibers  soft  and  glossy.  This  yolk  in  the  wool  collects 
dirt  and  dust  and  frequently  gives  the  sheep  a  dirty  appear- 
ance. Some  breeds  have  more  yolk  and  look  dirtier  than 
others. 

Fleece  for  Shelter. — Wool  is  a  good  protector  from  cold. 
The  sheep,  therefore,  which  has  a  heavy  covering  of  wool  is 
well  able  to  withstand  cold  weather.  This  is  very  valuable 
to  ihe  farmer  as  he  spends  less  for  shelter  for  sheep.  It  is 
also  good  for  the  sheep  as  they  can  get  out  in  winter  and  take 
their  normal  amount  of  exercise  without  suffering  from  the 
cold.     Even  in  cold  northern  countries,  a  shed  open  to  the 


180  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

south  is  sufficient  shelter  for  sheep.     What  they  do  need,  how- 
ever, is  a  dry  place  and  protection  from  cold  winds. 

OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS 

Dual-purpose  Nature. — Sheep  in  a  sense  are  dual-purpose 
animals.  They  yield  annually  lambs  and  wool.  A  good 
average  farm  flock  ought  to  shear  about  10  pounds  of  wool  per 
head  which  at  20  cents  a  pound  is  $2  for  wool.  Ewes  very  often 
drop  twins  and  sometimes  triplets.  An  average  of  1}4,  lambs 
for  each  ewe  can  be  raised  without  very  much  difficulty.  At 
the  rate  of  S4  or  $5  a  head  for  lambs,  an  income  of  $8  a  ewe 
is  easily  possible. 

Hothouse  Lambs. — Most  breeds  of  sheep  breed  only  in  the 
fall.  Their  period  of  gestation  is  five  months,  hence  the  lambs 
are  dropped  in  the  spring.  Early  spring  lambs  and  fall  lambs 
that  are  well  fed  and  prepared  for  the  holiday  and  early  spring 
markets  are  called  hothouse  lambs.  These  can  be  sold  in  the 
larger  cities  at  a  comparatively  high  price.  Such  lambs  may 
attain  one-third  the  weight  of  the  mature  sheep  and  sell  for 
from  two  to  four  times  the  price  per  pound  of  mature  sheep. 
This  is  a  very  profitable  side  line  in  sheep  husbandry  for  those 
who  are  in  a  position  to  handle  it. 

Care  of  Sheep. — The  droppings  of  sheep  are  comparatively 
dry  and  hard.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  clean  out  the  sheep 
shed  only  once  or  twice  a  year.  The  manure  may  then  bo 
loaded  on  the  wagon  or  manure  spreader  and  hauled  to  th(^ 
field.  On  account  of  the  nature  of,  the  droppings  also  very 
little  bedding  is  needed.  Sometimes  enough  stubble  is  left 
from  the  hay  that  is  fed  to  answer  this  purpose. 

Sheep  need  water  at  all  times  but  are  very  economical 
in  its  use.  They  need  much  less  relatively  than  the  other 
farm  animals.  This  makes  the  work  of  feeding  and  caring  for 
sheep  very  light.  This,  together  with  the  fact  that  sheep 
are  ruminants  and  can  use  a  large  proportion  of  roughages, 
and  that  they  do  not  need  expensive  shelter,  make  sheep  among 
the  most  profitable  of  all  farm  livestock.  To  succeed  with 
sheep,  however,  one  must  be  adapted  to  the  work  and  must 
have  a  fondness  for  the  animals,  which  must  be  handled  with 
care  and  kindness  and  the  feeds  should  be  clean,  sweet  and 


SHEEP  181 

wholesome.  Water  troughs  and  hay  rac^ks  sliouUl  also  be  kepi 
sci'upulously  clean. 

Eradication  of  Weeds. — Sheep  are  known  as  weed  eradi- 
cators.  They  are  very  fond  of  weeds  but  should  not  be  fed 
weeds  exclusively.  Because  of  the  liking  for  weeds,  however, 
sheep  are  very  valuable  assistants  in  cleaning  a  farm  of  weeds. 
They  need  the  minerals  found  in  weeds  for  the  manufacture 
of  wool.  A  small  band  of  sheep  on  a  farm  will  more  than  pay 
for  their  keep  in  this  way.  The  income  from  the  flock  may, 
therefore,  all  be  profit. 

Lambing  Time. — At  lambing  time  the  ewes  should  be  given 
careful  attention.  If  the  lambs  come  during  cold  weather 
the  ewes  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  till  the  lambs  are 
several  days  old.  When  the  lambs  are  born  they  should  be 
assisted  to  get  their  first  meal.  If  they  get  this  soon  after 
birth,  they  will  then  as  a  rule  take  care  of  themselves.  Some- 
times it  becomes  necessary  to  change  lambs  from  one  ewe  to 
another  if  one  ewe  has  triplets  and  another  only  one  lamb. 
In  such  a  case,  one  of  the  triplets  should  be  taken  while  the 
"one  lamb"  is  still  fresh  and  wet  and  the  two  well  rubbed 
together.  The  mother  of  the  one  lamb  will  not  then  recognize 
the  stranger  so  readily  and  will  be  more  ready  to  adopt  it. 
When  a  lamb  dies  a  strange  lamb  is  readily  adopted  by  being 
put  into  the  hide  of  the  dead  one. 

Weaning. — Lambs  should  be  allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes 
till  they  are  three  or  four  months  old.  When  the  lambs  are 
weaned  the  ewes  should  be  kept  on  scanty  dry  rations  for  a  few 
days  so  they  will  dry  up  without  contracting  udder  troubles. 
The  lambs  should  be  well  fed  on  growing  feeds,  both  roughages 
and  concentrates. 

Trimming  Feet  and  Shearing. — The  feet  of  sheep  should  be 
examined  once  a  year  and  if  they  have  grown  out  too  long 
should  be  trimmed.  The  shearing  is  done  as  a  rule  only  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  weather  is  warm.  Sometimes 
sheep  are  sheared  in  the  fall,  but  this  robs  them  of  their  coat 
which  they  need  for  protection  and  the  yield  of  wool  is  no  more 
than  when  they  are  sheared  only  once  per  year. 

Parasites  of  Sheep. — Sheep  are  subject  to  parasites.  The 
sheep  tick  looks  something  like  a  wood  tick  and  affects  sheep 


182  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

externally  as  lice  affect  other  animals.  Ticks  can  be  removed 
by  dipping.  Commercial  sheep  dips  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  This  material,  diluted  with  water  according  to 
directions,  is  put  into  a  deep  and  narrow  vat  and  the  sheep  are 
driven  through.  An  incline  is  provided  so  the  sheep  can  be 
slid  into  the  solution  without  injury.  It  is  said  that  three 
dippings  at  intervals  of  fourteen  days  will  clean  a  farm  and 
the  sheep  of  this  parasite. 

Internal  parasites  such  as  worms  are  more  difficult  to  dis- 
pose of  than  ticks.  Turpentine,  gasoline  and  other  similar 
remedies  are  frequently  used  but  prevention  is  better  than 
cure.  To  avoid  internal  parasites  sheep  should  not  be  kept 
on  the  same  pasture  two  years  in  succession.  Lambs  also, 
when  weaned,  should  be  put  into  a  pasture  that  had  no  sheep 
on  it  the  same  or  the  previous  year.  Where  the  winters  are 
long  and  cold  some  of  these  parasites  as  they  are  developed 
outside  of  the  sheep  freeze  to  death.  Thus  a  cold  northern 
country  that  has  a  dry  climate  is  especially  well  adapted  to 
sheep. 

SHEEP  FEEDING 

The  feeding  of  sheep  is  not  very  different  from  the  feeding 
of  cattle.  First  of  all,  sheep  should  be  well  fed.  In  summer 
when  the  ewes  are  on  good  pasture  they  do  not  need  any  grain 
and  can  raise  good  lambs  too.  In  winter  most  ewes  have  no 
lambs  with  them  and  can  be  wintered  on  hay  alone,  but  they 
will  do  better  if  they  have  a  little  grain  in  addition. 

When  hay  alone  is  fed  to  sheep  it  should  be  of  good  quality 
and  preferably  of  a  leguminous  variety,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa 
or  pea  hay.  A  variety  of  hays  is  also  better  than  just  one 
kind  of  hay.  Lambs  during  the  fall  and  winter  should  be 
well  fed  on  leguminous  hay  and  grain.  They  are  growing 
animals  and  should  have  some  of  the  protein  concentrates  as 
well  as  protein  hay.  Oats  and  corn  are  good  carbohydrate 
feeds.  To  these  a  little  bran,  oil  meal  or  ground  flax  should 
be  added.  Aside  from  the  flax,  the  grain  may  be  fed  whole  or 
ground,  just  as  the  sheep  like  it  best. 

Salt  and  water  should  be  ])efore  sheep  at  all  times. 


SHEEP 


183 


Fig.  33. — Shropshire  buck.     Breeding  condition. 


Fig.  34. — Shropshire  ewe.     Show  condition. 


1S4  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

Dwarf  Essex  rape  sown  in  the  spring  makes  excellent  sheep 
pasture  after  it  comes  up  and  has  a  good  start. 

When  sheep  are  kept  in  a  woods  pasture  they  do  consider- 
able work  in  clearing  the  land.  They  eat  the  sprouts,  young 
shoots  and  leaves  as  high  as  they  can  reach  and  this  helps  to 
clear  out  the  underbrush. 

Goats. — For  clearmg  land  Angora  goats  are  sometimes  re- 
commended in  preference  to  sheep.     These  animals  are  similar 


H 
Fig.  35. — A  farm  flock  of  Shropshire  grades. 

to  sheep  but  they  have  hair  (mohair)  instead  of  wool.  This  mo- 
hair is  in  considerable  demand.  But  both  for  fleece  and  car- 
cass goats  are  not  so  profitable  as  sheep.  Neither  sheep  or 
goats  will  eat  bushes  and  weeds  exclusively  unless  they  are 
forced  to  do  so.  They  will  take  some  grass  in  preference  but 
like  a  variety  and  will  eat  both. 

For  goats  a  good  high  fence  is  needed.  There  should  be 
no  brace  posts  on  the  inside  of  the  fence  to  aid  the  goats  to 
climb  out. 


SHEEP 


185 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

Most  of  the  improved  breeds  of  sheep  of  the  present  day 
trace  their  origin  to  England;  though  some  came  from  Spain 
and  some  from  France.  There  are  two  principal  types  of 
sheep,  namely,  the  fine  wool  sheep  and  the  mutton  sheep. 

FINE  WOOL  SHEEP 

Fine  wool  sheep  were  the  first  of  the  modern  types  of  sheep 
to  be  developed.     They  trace  back  almost  to  ancient  civiHza- 


FiG.  36. — Oxford  ewe.      Fitted  for  show. 


tion  and  came  to  us  through  the  southern  European  countries. 
Spain  is  especially  noted  for  the  production  of  this  kind  of 
sheep.  The  United  States  also  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
development  and  improvement  of  these  animals. 

Sheep  of  this  class  produce  a  large  amount  of  high-class 
wool.     The  wool  is  fine  in  fiber,  good  in  crimp,  dense  in  fleece, 


186 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


Fig.  37. — Southdown  owe. 


Fig.  .38. — Dorset  horned  owe.      (Hildobrand.) 


SHEEP  187 

and  contains  a  large  amount  of  yolk.  When  they  were  de- 
veloped there  was  not  much  demand  for  mutton,  but  there  was 
a  great  demand  for  good  wool. 

In  order  to  make  the  wool-producing  surface  as  large  as 
possible,  in  these  sheep,  wrinkles  in  the  skin  were  sought  in 
breeding.     Consequently  they  have  great  folds  of  skin  about 


^^f'^^\ 

JjS^^SjM 

J^^^Bbf ''     '^^Hl^' ' 

SK^lL.....-> 

'm'-- 

^Wm 

k 

^H^^^    -'^a^BBat^^^^ 

'  r^^-fWJifYfTiMy^  -^ 

^Sf^tBKB^"^ 

a 

fi;  ■  :;..:^»«^?^- 

^■HK«^; 

*^-^ 

Jkz 


Fig.  39. — Merino    ram,    B    type.     Medium    wrinkly.     (Hildebrand.) 

the  neck,  lower  hind  quarters,  and  lower  parts  of  sides.  The 
energies  of  these  sheep  are  mainly  consumed  in  wool-making. 

In  shearing,  the  skin  is  drawn  tight  on  the  part  of  the  body 
where  the  shearing  is  done.  The  wrinkles,  therefore,  do  not 
interfere  with  shearing.  The  fiber  of  the  wool  as  a  rule  is  not 
more  than  2  or  3  inches  long. 

In  later  years,  some  of  the  sheep  of  this  type  have  been 
bred  to  produce  more  mutton  consequently  they  have  fewer 


188 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


wrinkles  and   produce  less  wool.     There  is,  then,   almost  a 
gradual  blending  from  this  type  to  the  other  types  of  sheep. 

The  breed  name  generally  used  to  designate  this  type  of 
sheep  is  Marino.  There  are  the  Spanish  Marino,  American 
Marino,  Delaine  Marino,  and  Rambouillet  or  French  Marino. 
There  are  also  various  shades  and  modifications  of  these,  which 


Fig.  40. — Merino  ewe,  A  t.\  ij 


Wtv  u-iinklv.      (HihK'hi 


are  not  so  very  wrinkly  and  are  better  for  mutton  than  the 
former. 


MUTTON  SHEEP 


In  recent  times  mutton  has  come  more  into  demand  and 
sheep  have  been  developed  to  produce  mutton  as  well  as  wool. 
With  mutton  sheep  the  income  from  lambs  and  carcasses  is 
greater  than  the  income  from  the  sale  of  wool.     It  is  the  aim 


SHEEP 


189 


with  this  type  to  produce  as  much  and  as  high  a  quahty  of 
both  mutton  and  wool  as  possible. 

Shropshire. — Among  the  most  popular  sheep  in  the  United 
States  today  are  the  Shropshire  and  the  Shropshire  grades. 
Shropshires  are  noted  for  being  all-round  good  sheep.  They 
are  good  for  both  mutton  and  wool.     They  are  also  good  for 


1 1 , — Rambouillet  <  •  \\ ' 

producing  lambs.     The  lambs  also  come  strong  and  the  ewes 
are  fairly  good  milkers. 

The  number  of  lambs  produced  by  any  breed  is  largely  a 
matter  of  breeding  and  care.  The  author  has  heard  from 
reliable  sources  of  14  ewes  (breed  not  mentioned)  producing 
34  lambs.  While  this  is  an  exceptionally  large  number, 
Shropshires  ought  easily  to  produce  150  per  cent,  of  lambs. 
Or  with  good  breeding  and  care  175  per  cent. 


190  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  Shropshire  is  a  dark-faced  sheep  and  is  well  covered 
with  wool  on  both  face  and  legs  (pp.  183  and  184). 

Oxford  Down. — The  Oxford  sheep  is  noted  for  its  size. 
It  is  a  little  larger  than  the  Shropshire  but  much  the  same  in 
other  respects,  although  the  larger  a  sheep  the  less  active  it  is. 


Fig.  42. — Cheviot  ewe. 

A  large  sheep  is  adapted  to  a  level  country  where  grass  is 
abundant,  while  a  small  sheep  is  better  adapted  to  a  country 
that  is  hilly. 

Southdown. — The  Southdown  is  an  especially  well-developed 
mutton  sheep.  Southdowns  have  a  thick  covering  of  a  fine 
quality  of  lean  meat.     But  they  are  not  so  good  for  wool  pro- 


BHEEP 


191 


duction.  Neither  are  they  so  good  in  lamb  production  or  in 
the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  lambs  produced  as  some  of  the 
other  breeds.  They  are  dark  brown  or  mouse-colored  in 
face  and  on  legs. 

Dorset  Horned. — The  Dorsets  drop  lambs  in  the  fall.     On 
this  account  they  can  have  lambs  twice  a  year  and  the  fall 


Fig.  43. — Cotswold   ewe.     One  of  the  long-wooled   breeds.     (Hildebrand.) 


lambs  can  be  finished  as  hothouse  lambs  for  the  holiday  trade. 
This  breed  is  good  in  milk  flow  and  produces  good  lambs. 
Both  sexes  among  Dorsets  have  horns.  These  grow  spirally 
on  the  side  of  the  head.  The  sheep  are  white  in  face  and  on 
legs.  They  are  not  so  well  covered  with  wool  as  most  other 
breeds. 

Other  Breeds. — The  Hampshire  Down  breed  is  much  like 
the  Shropshire  and  the  Oxford  breeds.     The  Cheviot  is  a  white- 


-[g2  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

faced  breed  with  no  wool  on  head  or  the  lower  part  of  the  legs 
Th    Le Lester,  Lincoln  and  Cotswold  breeds  are  the  largos 
i  the  breeds  wHh  the  possible  exception  of  -"-  ^^  ^^e 
Oxfords.     They  have  very  long   wool   fiber       The  jool  is 
so  long  that  it  sometimes  hangs  down  the  side  ot  the  siieep 
in  locks. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SWINE 

Swine  are  omnivorous  animals.  They  eat  all  the  different 
kinds  of  feeds.  They  eat  animal  and  vegetable  feeds,  good 
feeds  and  spoiled  feeds,  concentrates  and  roughages.  They 
eat  everything  but  are  primarily  adapted  to  concentrates  and 
thrive  with  sound  wholesome  feed  and  clean  quarters  as  well 
as  any  other  animals.  Swine  occupy  a  place  on  the  farm  that 
cannot  be  filled  by  any  other  animal.  While  they  can  get 
along  sometimes  under  conditions  that  would  be  fatal  to  other 
animals,  they  respond  to  good  treatment  as  well  as  any  of  the 
other  animals  of  the  farm. 

The  young  animals  of  this  family  are  called  pigs.  After 
they  are  weaned  they  go  by  the  name  of  shotes  and  after  they 
reach  considerable  size  (about  100  pounds)  the}'  are  called 
hogs.  The  words  ''pigs"  and  "hogs"  are  also  sometimes  used 
in  a  general  sense  including  both  old  and  young.  The  male 
of  the  family  is  called  a  boar  and  the  mature  female  is  called 
sow.  A  young  sow  is  called  a  gilt  or  gelt.  A  barrow  is  a 
male  pig  after  castration  provided  the  operation  was  performed 
before  it  became  too  large.  If  a  male  pig  is  castrated  after  it 
has  attained  considerable  size  it  is  called  a  stag. 

A  stag  is  sold  on  the  market  with  80  pounds  off,  or  is  docked 
80  pounds.  This  custom  started  many  years  ago.  The 
reason  is  that  there  is  some  waste  in  the  shields  and  sheath. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  not  much  waste  and  when  hogs 
were  selling  at  10  cents  per  pound,  stags  sold  for  more  per 
pound  than  barrows.  Even  at  present,  with  the  price  of  hogs 
at  7  cents  and  8  cents  a  pound,  stags  are  bought  in  the  country 
at  the  same  price  as  other  hogs  with  80  pounds  off.  A  sow  that 
shows  pigginess  is  docked  40  pounds. 

The  shield  of  a  hog  is  a  thickening  and  hardening  of  the 
skin  on  the  side  of  the  hog  over  the  shoulder.  This  is  for 
protection  in  fighting.     Hogs  fight  by  striking  each  other  with 

193 

i.i 


194  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

their  tushes.  These  as  a  rule  are  found  only  on  boars  and 
should  always  be  cut  off.  To  do  this,  a  pair  of  bolt  clippers 
can  be  used  and  also  an  ordinary  pair  of  nail  pincers.  The 
tushes  are  usually  diamond-shaped  and  if  they  are  nipped  on 
each  side  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  being  brittle,  they  will  break 
off.  Sometimes  people  knock  them  off  with  a  hammer  but 
this  is  cruel  treatment.  Sometimes,  also/ they  are  cut  off  with 
a  meat  saw. 

In  going  among  boars  and  especially  at  shows  where  there 
are  strange  hogs,  one  should  always  be  on  his  guard.  A  boar 
may  strike  at  a  person  and  cut  his  leg.  Such  injuries  are 
very  dangerous.  They  may  result  in  blood  poisoning  and 
should  be  treated  at  once  by  a  competent  physician.  The 
wound  should  be  well  sterilized  and  disinfected.  If  the  tushes 
are  kept  cut  off,  this  danger  does  not  exist. 

Boars  used  to  be  sold  on  the  market  as  such  but  at  a  greatly 
reduced  price  and  without  any  dock.  Some  people  have  made 
considerable  money  in  buying  boars  on  the  market,  castrating 
them  and  then  feeding  them  a  while  and  selling  them  again 
as  stags.  But  in  recent  years  it  has  become  more  difficult 
to  ship  hogs  out  of  the  yards  at  the  market  centers  and  an 
embargo  has  been  placed  upon  the  slaughter  of  boars  for 
human  consumption.  Boar  meat  is  strong  and  not  relished 
by  anyone.  Boars  should  always  be  castrated  when  through 
with  service  on  the  farm  and  then  be  fed  several  months  and 
sold  as  stags. 

THE  HERD  BOAR 

The  herd  boar  like  the  herd  bull  or  any  other  sire  is  more 
than  half  the  herd.  He  must  be  well  bred,  well  developed,  well 
fed,  and  well  cared  for. 

In  starting  a  herd  or  in  introducing  new  blood,  or  again  when 
a  better  boar  can  be  bought  than  can  be  produced  on  the  farm, 
one  should  buy.  One  who  is  producing  hogs  for  the  pork 
market  should  buy  his  boars  from  a  person  who  specializes 
in  pork  stock  but  the  boar  should  be  well  selected.  A  poor 
purebred  may  not  be  so  good  as  a  good  grade.  One's  ability 
as  a  judge  coimts  here.  A  ]>oar  should  be  selected  for  his  own 
good  characteristics  as  well  as  for  those  of  his  ancestors.     He 


SWINE  195 

should  have  masculinity  well  developed  and  in  other  respects 
should  conform  to  good  swine  type. 

In  buying  a  herd  boar,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  buy  a  boar  pig. 
The  express  charges  then  will  not  be  so  high,  and  if  one  has 
ability  as  a  judge  he  can  also  get  a  pig  that  will  develop  into  a 
good  hog.  If  one  is  not  a  good  judge,  he  may  do  better  by 
selecting  a  larger  animal  and  paying  the  difference  in  express 
charges.  Frequently,  also,  farmers  have  good  boars  that 
must  be  disposed  of  to  avoid  in-breeding  and  these  can  be 
bought  or  traded  for  very  reasonably.  When  the  herd  boar 
is  bred  on  the  farm  he  should  be  just  as  carefully  selected  as 
when  he  is  bought  outside. 

HOW  TO  GET  A  GOOD  SOW 

A  good  sow  as  against  a  poor  one  means  the  difference  be- 
tween profit  and  loss.  A  good  sow  is  bred,  developed,  fed, 
and  made.  She  may  sometimes  be  bought  but  as  a  rule  is 
bred  on  the  farm.  Such  sows  usually  are  not  for  sale.  They 
are  too  valuable  to  their  first  owner. 

Gilts  or  young  sows  do  not  as  a  rule  farrow  a  maximum  Utter 
the  first  time.  The  first  litter  is  usually  raised  before  the  sow's 
own  development  is  complete.  If  she  suckles  six  pigs,  say, 
the  six  teats  suckled  will  develop.  The  remainder  will 
become  dormant.  In  future  years,  therefore,  the  sow  will  be 
able  to  raise  just  as  many  good  pigs  as  she  had  in  her  first 
litter.  There  are  occasional  exceptions  to  this  rule  but  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  points  in  the  production  of  a  good 
sow.     She  should  be  asked  to  raise  a  full  litter  at  first. 

In  order  to  do  this,  a  number  of  sows  should  be  bred  to 
farrow  as  near  the  same  time  as  possible.  Then  when  the  sows 
farrow  the  good  ones  that  are  to  be  kept  in  the  herd  should  be 
given  full  litters.  This  applies  especially  to  young  sows. 
Pigs  should  be  taken  away  from  sows  that  are  to  be  sold 
for  pork  after  weaning,  or  from  old  sows  and  given  to  the  good 
young  sows.  Or  if  all  the  sows  are  young  and  all  good,  all  the 
pigs  can  be  taken  away  from  one  and  distributed  among  several 
others.  A  young  sow,  then,  if  she  is  to  be  kept  as  a  brood 
sow,  should  be  made  to  raise  either  a  full  litter  or  none  at  all. 
Sows  so  handled  may  farrow  more  pigs  in  their  second,  third 


196  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

and  fourth  litters  and  be  able  to  raise  them.  It  may  be  ob- 
jected that  a  young  sow  or  gilt  cannot  raise  eight,  ten  or  twelve 
pigs  and  do  it  well.  If  she  has  been  well  developed  and  if  she 
and  her  pigs  are  well  fed,  she  can  do  it. 

The  day  this  was  written  the  author  had  a  3'oung  sow,  se- 
lected as  a  future  brood  sow,  that  farrowed  eight  nice  large 
pigs  of  uniform  size.  She  had  twelve  good  teats,  consequently 
four  pigs  were  taken  from  a  sow  that  had  farrowed  a  few  days 
previously  and  given  to  the  good  sow  so  that  she  had  twelve 
pigs  to  raise.  The  sow  from  which  the  pigs  were  taken  was 
to  be  sold  for  pork. 

Young  or  Old  Sows. — Some  people  make  it  a  practice  to 
raise  their  pigs  from  young  sows  and  then  fatten  and  sell  them 
along  with  their  pigs.  This  practice  has  its  handicaps. 
There  is  a  tendency  for  the  vitaHty  of  the  stock  to  run  down 
and  a  much  larger  number  of  sows  must  be  kept  to  produce  a 
given  number  of  pigs.  Some  may  be  non-breeders  and  others 
poor  milkers,  poor  mothers,  poor  feeders  or  producers  of 
inferior  offspring. 

The  smaller  the  percentage  of  sows  selected  each  year  for 
the  breeding  herd,  the  better  these  are  and  the  better  will 
be  their  pigs. 

In  order  to  keep  the  cost  of  maintenance  down  on  old  sows 
they  should  be  made  to  raise  two  litters  a  year.  This  can  be 
done  even  in  northern  Minnesota.  If  onl}^  one  litter  a  year 
is  raised  it  is  still  better  to  keep  the  old  sows  as  long  as  they 
do  good  work.  This  may  be  till  they  are  six  or  eight  years 
old.  Such  sows  can  be  carried  through  the  summer  on  good 
pasture  after  weaning  their  spring  pigs. 

HERD  MANAGEMENT 

One  of  the  first  considerations  in  making  a  place  for  the 
swine  of  the  farm  should  be  to  give  them  plenty  of  exercise. 
In  summer  this  can  easily  be  done  by  giving  them  a  large  pas- 
ture. They  should  be  allowed  to  graze  on  this  and  not  be 
fed  so  much  that  they  will  not  go  out  to  graze.  The  environ- 
ment also  should  be  such  that  they  can  go  out. 

In  a  warm  country  or  where  it  gets  hot  in  summer,  hogs 
cannot  go  out  into  the  sun.     The  pig  does  not  perspire,  conse- 


SWINK  1V)7 

quently  cannot  keep  down  body  temperature  and  is  readily 
overcome  by  heat.  The  best  kind  of  an  environment  then  is 
a  large  pasture  that  is  well  supplied  with  shade  for  protection 
from  the  hot  sun 

When  a  hog  does  become  overheated  it  may  die  very  soon 
and  suddenly,  but  if  it  can  be  taken  in  hand  before  it  is  too 
late  it  should  be  put  into  a  cool  shady  place.  A  little  water 
may  be  sprinkled  on  its  snout  or  may  be  poured  on  the  ground 
for  the  hog  to  lie  in.  Water  should  never  be  poured  on  its 
head  or  back  when  in  this  condition.  This  might  kill  it 
outright 

If  hogs  do  not  take  sufficient  exercise  normally  on  pasture, 
a  little  corn  or  other  feed  may  be  put  out  at  different  places 
in  the  pasture  each  day  so  they  will  go  out  and  look  for  it 
and  thus  get  exercise.  In  winter  the  sleeping  place  may  be 
set  away  from  the  feed  trough  so  the  hogs  will  be  obliged  to 
walk;  or  they  may  be  allowed  to  go  from  the  hog  house  to  the 
horse  barn  or  cow  barn  and  there  work  over  the  manure  for 
exercise. 

Exercise  is  very  important,  especially  for  the  young  pigs, 
the  growing  shotes,  and  the  breeding  stock.  The  fattening 
hogs  do  not  need  it  so  much.  If  fattening  hogs  are  well  fed 
they  will  not  take  too  much  exercise  even  if  they  are  in  a 
pasture.  Exercise  is  especially  important  in  swine  because 
they  are  not  especially  well  built  for  it  and  are  inclined  to 
neglect  it. 

Hog  Cholera. — The  author  believes  that  it  is  on  account  of 
environment,  breeding,  feeding  and  care  to  which  hogs  have 
been  subjected  in  recent  decades,  that  they  are  so  subject  to 
cholera.  They  have  been  bred  without  sufficient  regard  for 
constitutional  development,  have  been  fed  too  much  of  fatten- 
ing feeds,  often  have  not  had  enough  water  or  mineral  matter, 
have  not  been  supplied  with  sanitary  living  conditions,  and 
have  not  been  required  to  take  enough  exercise.  As  long  as 
hog  cholera  is  prevalent  a  few  words  about  the  disease  is  not 
out  of  order. 

Hogs  taking  the  disease  appear  droopy,  their  ears  lopping 
and  their  tails  hanging  straight  down.  They  may  or  may  not 
cough  and  may  be  constipated  or  have  scours.     Constipation 


198  LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 

may  be  followed  by  scours  with  an  offensive  odor  to  the  dis- 
charge. They  will  also  be  inclined  to  crawl  into  the  straw. 
When  driven  out  they  appear  w^eak  and  sometimes  walk  with 
a  wobbly  gait.  The  skin  on  the  tenderer  parts  of  the  body 
may  also  be  red  in  spots  or  speckled  inclining  more  to  complete 
redness. 

To  make  sure,  however,  whether  a  hog  has  cholera,  in  order 
to  protect  the  rest  of  the  herd,  a  postmortem  examination 
should  be  made. 

The  sick  animal,  after  slaughtering,  should  be  laid  on  its 
back  and  cut  open  as  for  dressing.  The  head  should  be  partly 
cut  off  just  back  of  the  jaw  bones.  By  cutting  in  here  some 
glands  about  the  size  of  hickory  nuts  are  found.  In  a  healthy 
hog  these  are  of  a  light  flesh  color  but  in  a  hog  afflicted  with 
cholera  they  are  enlarged  and  inflamed.  In  a  cholera  hog 
there  may  also  be  well-defined  red  areas  in  the  lungs.  The 
interior  of  the  body  may  also  be  red  speckled,  and  the  mem- 
brane surrounding  the  kidneys,  cut  on  one  side  and  peeled 
off,  may  show  the  kidneys  speckled  with  fine  red  spots.  Some- 
times they  are  badly  speckled  like  a  turkey  egg  and  some- 
times there  are  only  a  few  red  spots.  These  may  also  be  very 
fine.  The  enlarged  and  inflamed  glands  in  the  neck,  the 
reddened  areas  in  the  lungs  and  the  speckled  kidnej^s  are,  as 
far  as  known  at  present,  a  sure  indication  of  hog  cholera. 

When  the  disease  starts  in  a  herd  the  sick  ones  should  at 
once  be  entirely  isolated.  The  well  hogs  should  at  once  be 
treated  with  the  hog  cholera  serum.  This  can  be  had  from  a 
State  institution  or  from  commercial  manufacturing  com- 
panies. The  State  livestock  sanitary  board  should  be  con- 
sulted, if  there  is  one.  As  serum  is  only  a  preventive  it  need 
not  be  used  on  the  sick  hogs. 

There  are  two  methods  of  vaccination,  the  ''serum  only" 
method  and  the  ''double  treatment."  By  the  former  the  hogs 
are  treated  with  serum  alone.  Serum  is  the  blood  from  a  hog 
that  is  immune  from  cholera  and  then  has  been  treated  with 
a  large  amount  of  cholera  blood.  In  preparing  the  serum  some 
of  the  clot  is  taken  out  of  the  blood.  In  giving  the  double 
treatment  the  serum  is  used  but  in  addition  to  this  the  hogs 
are  at  the  same  time  inoculated  with  a  Httle  virulent  hog 


SWINE  199 

cholera  blood.  This  starts  the  disease  and  the  serum  counter- 
acts it  so  that  only  a  mild  case  of  the  cholera  is  developed. 
Recovering  from  this,  the  hog  is  thought  to  be  immune  for 
life.  With  the  serum  only  method  the  hog  is  protected  only 
for  a  few  weeks. 

If  the  serum  only  treatment  is  administered  at  the  time  the 
hogs  treated  have  it  in  their  bodies  the  effect  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  double  treatment.  But  this  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  determine  and  one  is  never  altogether  safe  in  trusting  to  this 
method  of  treatment.  The  hogs  may  be  protected  for  a  few 
weeks  and  as  the  germs  live  longer  than  this  on  the  farm  the 
disease  may  break  out  again.  By  using  the  double  treatment 
before  the  hogs  get  sick  one  is  safe.  The  treatment  whether 
single  or  double  is  expensive.  The  larger  the  hog,  the  more 
it  costs.     In  general  it  costs  about  a  dollar  a  head. 

The  best  way  is  to  prevent  the  disease  by  breeding,  feeding 
and  caring  for  the  hogs  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  strong 
enough  constitutionally  to  resist  it.  In  Canada  the  manu- 
facture, sale  and  use  of  hog  cholera  serum  is  prohibited  by  law. 
In  the  United  States  many  herds  have  demonstrated  the  power 
to  resist  the  disease  by  going  through  an  epidemic  without 
injury.  In  the  author's  experience  it  was  shown  that  cholera 
takes  the  weak  specimens  of  a  herd  while  the  strong  ones  are 
left.  Therefore,  if  the  herd  is  all  strong  there  should  be  no 
trouble  with  the  disease. 

Shelter  for  Swine. — Shelter  should  be  provided  for  swine 
in  summer  in  the  form  of  shade;  in  winter  for  protection  from 
the  cold. 

A  hog  house  should  be  convenient  for  those  who  have  the 
care  of  the  hogs,  should  keep  the  hogs  dry,  protect  them  from 
cold  winds,  and  be  warm.  It  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
sun  may  shine  into  the  pens  where  the  young  pigs  are  in  the 
spring  and  the  fall.  Any  kind  of  a  house  that  supplies  these 
conditions  from  a  straw  shed  to  an  expensive  structure  of 
architectural  beauty  is  all  right. 

A  hog  house  designed  by  the  author  is  discussed  in  his  book 
"Swine  "  published  by  the  Breeders'  Gazette,  of  Chicago.  This 
is  built  facing  the  south  with  windows  so  arranged  that  the 
sun  will  shine  into  the  pens  on  both  sides  of  an  8-foot  alley 


200  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

running  through  the  middle.  The  roof  on  the  south  part  is 
fiat  and  the  windows  throwing  the  hght  to  the  north  side  are 
in  the  wall  to  the  south  of  the  alley  and  extending  up  from  the 
roof  over  the  south  row  of  pens.  This  roof  is  6  feet  on  the 
outside  or  7  feet  next  to  alley  from  the  floor.  The  inside  of 
the  house  is  provided  with  wire  partitions  so  as  to  allow 
free  circulation  of  air  and  to  keep  the  hogs  in  view  of  each  other 
and  of  the  attendant.  The  building  is  30  feet  wide  and  is 
ventilated  by  windows  and  doors. 

Time  to  Breed. — Sows  should  be  bred  so  as  to  bring  their 
pigs  at  the  desired  time.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about 
114  days.  The  spring  pigs  should  come  as  early  as  possible 
so  the  fall  litter,  when  one  is  produced,  will  not  be  too  late. 
The  fall  pigs  should  have  a  good  start  when  cold  weather 
comes. 

With  early  spring  pigs  better  shelter  is  needed  than  with 
those  that  come  a  little  later.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the 
old  sows  farrow  early  and  then  farrow  again  in  the  fall  and  to 
allow  the  young  sows  or  gilts  to  farrow  later  in  the  spring  and 
then  rest  up  during  the  rest  of  the  year  and  finish  their  own 
growth.  Those  that  do  not  prove  good  should  be  fattened 
and  sold. 

Black  Teeth. — When  pigs  are  born  they  have  two  long  brown 
or  black  teeth  on  each  side  of  both  upper  and  lower  jaws.  These 
should  be  cut  off  as  soon  as  the  pigs  arrive.  This  can  be  done 
with  a  pair  of  molar  forceps,  pincers,  etc.  If  these  teeth  are 
not  removed  the  pigs  in  fighting  for  a  place  at  the  udder  will 
injure  themselves  which  ma}^  give  the  pigs  a  severe  setback. 
Or  they  may  irritate  the  dam  so  that  she  refuses  to  allow 
them  to  suck. 

Ear  Marks. — Pure-bred  pigs  should  also  be  marked  as  soon 
as  born.  This  can  l^e  done  by  clipping  nicks  in  the  ears  with 
pinchers  made  for  the  purpose.  Clipping  helps  to  identify 
the  pigs  afterward. 

Castration. — Castration  is  best  performed  on  pigs  when 
they  are  from  four  to  six  weeks  old.  This  will  give  the  wounds 
a  chance  to  heal  before  the  pigs  are  weaned  and  will  result  in 
the  least  setback.  It  can  be  done  at  this  time  with  the  least 
work.     Pigs  that  are  to  be  used  as  boars  should  be  reserved. 


SWINE  201 

Castrating  can  be  performed  at  any  time  and  even  on  an 
old  boar  without  any  danger.  A  cool  day  should  be  selected 
in  summer  when  it  is  not  too  muddy  or  too  dusty.  In  winter 
a  warm  day  should  be  selected.  After  the  operation,  which 
should  be  performed  with  hands  and  knife  well  disinfected,  a 
little  of  the  disinfectant  solution  should  be  put  into  the  wound. 
A  3  to  5  per  cent,  solution  of  the  coal  tar  dips  or  of  carbolic 
acid  is  good  for  the  purpose. 

In  castrating  a  pig  ruptured  in  the  scrotum  the  skin  only 
is  opened  after  the  intestines  have  been  pushed  back  into  the 
abdominal  cavity.  The  membrane  containing  the  testicles  is 
worked  out  through  this  opening  and  drawn  out  several  inches. 
It  is  then  firmly  tied  and  cut  off  below  the  place  where  tied. 
The  string  is  left  long  enough  to  hang  out. 

Weaning. — Pigs  may  be  weaned  early  or  late.  But  in  the 
author's  experience  two  months  was  found  a  good  age.  The 
best  plan  is  to  leave  the  pigs  where  they  were  before  weaning 
and  to  take  the  sow  away.  The  sow  should  be  put  on  scanty 
feed  for  a  few  days  to  let  her  dry  up  without  udtler  trouble, 
and  the  pigs  should  be  fed  three  times  a  clay  for  a  time  at  least. 
The  feeding  should  be  slowl}^  and  gradually  changed. 

The  pigs  should  be  fed  for  about  a  month  before  they  are 
weaned.  They  will  learn  to  eat  when  they  are  about  a  month 
old  and  should  then  be  fed.  They  can  at  this  time  eat  along 
with  their  dams  and  enough  trough  room  for  the  purpose  should 
be  provided.  A  growing  ration  should  be  used  at  this  time 
for  sow  and  litter  and  afterward  with  the  litters. 

Scours. — When  pigs  are  properly  fed  they  do  not  get  the 
scours.  But  if  they  do  have  the  trouble,  they  should  have 
a  physic  and  be  fed  out  of  well-cleaned  and  disinfected  troughs. 
Salts,  castor  oil  or  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  used.  While  the 
pigs  are  still  with  their  mothers  these  materials  are  fed  to  her. 
Later  they  are  given  to  the  pigs  direct. 

Thumps. — This  is  an  ailment  of  small  pigs  and  is  caused  by 
a  lack  of  exercise.  A  sow  and  her  litter  may  be  left  in  a  pen 
safely  till  the  pigs  are  about  two  weeks  old.  Then  they  should 
be  taken  out  and  given  more  range.  If  they  are  kept  confined 
much  longer  than  this  there  is  danger  of  thumps.  The  symp- 
toms are  a  jerky  motion  in  the  sides  in  breathing  similar  to 


202  LIVESTOCK    ON^    THE    P\\RM 

heaves  in  a  horse.  There  is  no  cure  and  the  chfficulty  should 
be  prevented  with  exercise. 

Lice. — Sometimes  pigs  are  troubled  with  lice.  These  are 
best  removed  by  dipping  the  hogs  in  crude  oil.  The  hogs  are 
driven  through  a  dipping  vat  nearly  filled  with  water  with  a 
layer  of  the  oil  on  top.  Coal  tar  dips  are  also  used  but  are  not 
so  effective  as  the  crude  oil.  An  oil  spray  or  rubbing  with  oil 
is  also  good.  In  some  of  the  European  countries  a  crude  castor 
oil  is  used.  This  is  poured  with  a  can  along  the  back  of  the 
hog.  As  it  works  its  way  down  the  side  of  the  hog  the  lice  are 
covered.     This  kills  them  by  covering  their  breathing  pores. 

Worms. — When  hogs  are  wormy  they  look  unthrifty  and 
sometimes  cough.  Wormy  hogs  should  be  properly  fed,  their 
ration  containing  mineral  substances.  A  crop  of  pumpkins 
grown  in  summer  and  fed  to  the  hogs  in  the  fall  is  not  only  one 
of  the  best  and  cheapest  feeds  to  be  had  but  will  also  remove 
worms.  Commercial  worm  remedies  are  also  available  but 
prevention  with  minerals  and  pumpkins  is  preferable. 

Rooting. — By  rooting  hogs  not  only  get  mineral  substances 
but  also  palatable  feeds.  If  pastures  are  destroyed  by  this 
habit  it  may  be  prevented  by  putting  rings  into  the  snouts  of 
the  hogs.     The  single  rings  are  best. 

Abortion. — Occasionally  hogs  are  afflicted  with  contagious 
abortion  similar  to  that  in  cattle.  The  disease  should  be 
treated  as  in  cows.  Constitution  and  vigor  should  be  used 
as  a  preventive.  Isolation  and  disinfection  are  helpful.  The 
worst  cases  should  be  disposed  of.  Hogs  become  immune  to 
the  disease  in  time. 

Tuberculosis. — Hogs  are  subject  to  tuberculosis.  The  dis- 
ease works  much  more  rapidly  with  hogs  than  with  cattle  and 
can  be  prevented  by  not  feeding  tuberculous  feeds.  Milk 
from  tuberculous  herds  and  from  creameries  should  be  guarded 
against.     It  should  be  sterilized. 

Hogs  contract  tuberculosis  only  by  ingestion,  by  taking  the 
germs  into  the  digestive  tract.  This  makes  it  easier  to  fight 
the  disease  with  hogs  than  with  cattle. 

Marketing. — Hogs  should  be  marketed  whenever  they  are 
in  fit  condition.  In  other  words,  they  should  be  fed  with  the 
time  at  which  they  are  to  be  marketed  in  mind.     When  a  hog 


SWINE  203 

has  once  been  finished  it  can  no  lono;er  be  fed  profitably  and 
should  be  sold. 

Hogs  ma}^  be  sent  to  market  directly  from  the  farm,  may  be 
sent  through  a  shipping  association  or  may  be  sold  to  country 
buyers  or  shippers.  When  hogs  are  shipped  in  summer  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  put  a  few  cakes  of  ice  in  the  center  of  the  car  to 
prevent  overheating.  A  car  should  not  be  too  heavily  loaded 
in  warm  weather. 

Grinding  Feeds. — When  corn  is  used  as  a  feed  for  hogs  it 
can  be  fed  to  advantage  either  whole  or  ground.  Grains  like 
oats,  barley  and  rye  are  better  ground.  There  are  other  fine 
hard  seeds  that  should  also  be  ground.  When  feeds  are  ground 
for  pigs  they  should  be  ground  into  a  fine  meal. 

Grinding  is  resorted  to  frequently  to  induce  the  pigs  to  drink 
more  water  in  winter.  Finely  ground  feed  in  warm  water  will 
give  pigs  the  water  they  need  in  winter  when  they  are  not  likely 
to  take  as  much  as  they  should. 

By  grinding  and  mixing,  certain  concentrated  protein  feeds 
can  also  be  better  distributed  among  the  animals  in  a  herd. 

TYPE  IN  SWINE 

Swine  are  meat-producing  animals  and  should  be  long  in  the 
body,  especially  from  the  shoulder  to  the  rear.  All  of  this  part 
of  the  carcass  is  high-priced  meat  and  the  more  of  this  that  can 
be  had  in  proportion  to  the  part  in  front,  the  more  valuable  is 
the  hog.  Swine,  like  cattle  or  sheep,  should  be  good  in  consti- 
tution, quaUty,  covering  of  lean  meat,  size,  etc. 

Strength  and  vigor  are  necessary  to  enable  a  hog  to  resist 
disease  and  to  grow  rapidly  and  economically.  The  quality 
should  be  fine  but  at  the  same  time  not  fine  enough  to  produce 
deHcacy. 

Swine  are  considered  as  the  fat-producing  animals  of  the 
farm.  Nevertheless  when  one  goes  to  the  meat  market  to  buy 
a  piece  of  meat  it  is  bought  for  the  lean  it  contains  and  not  for 
the  fat.  Hogs,  then,  should  be  bred  for  as  much  lean  as  pos- 
sible. Fat  can  be  put  on  by  feeding  to  the  extent  desired  in 
any  case.  Size  is  of  importance  as  it  enables  one  to  produce 
pork  more  economically. 

There  are  two  principal  types  of  swine,  namely,  the  bacon 


204 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


type  and  the  fat  or  lard  type.  The  former  is  well  developed  in 
lean-meat  production  and  is  sold  before  it  gets  very  fat.  The 
latter  naturally  produces  more  fat  and  is  also  fed  to  be  fatter. 


Fig.  44. — Tamworth  sow.      (From  "Swine"  by  author  for  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


Fig.   45. — Larjic  Yorkshire   hoar. 


The  tendency',  however,  even  in  lai'd  hogs  is  to  breed  those  that 
produce  more  lean. 

Vigor  and  Breeding. — Two  of  the  most  important  points  in 
swine  are  vigor  and  breeding.  By  breeding  is  meant  especially 
the  influence  of  feeding  and  environment  of  the  ancestors. 


SWINE 


200 


Pigs  seem  to  be  very  plastic.     Characteristics  seem  to  be  ac- 
quired very  readily  and  also  transmitted  to  the  offspring. 


Fig.  4G. — Large  Yorkshire  sow,  two  weeks  before  farrowing. 


Fig.  47. — Berkshire  boar,  showing  length  of  body. 


Therefore,  if  one's  hogs  are  to  do  well  they  should  be  from  an- 
cestry that  were  strong  and  vigorous  and  that  grew  rapidly  and 
economically. 


206 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 
BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


In  swine  the  matter  of  breed  is  of  very  secondary  considera- 
tion. The  principal  considerations  are  size,  vigor,  breeding 
and  feeding.     The  man  should  choose  the  breed  he  likes  best — ■ 


\'r:  "tr-  ;  *  ~  ^    tms^mf^  i  i4)' 


Fig.  48. — Berkshire  sow.     (From  "Swine"  b\-  author  for  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


Fig.  49. — Chester  White  sow.      (From  "Swiue"   by  author  for 
Breeder's  Gazette.) 

can  work  with  to  the  best  advantage,  just  as  the  artisan  chooses 
the  material  he  prefers. 

The  smaller  breeds  on  account  of  lack  of  size  seem  gradually 


SWINE 


207 


to  bo  disappearino;.  The  principal  broods  in  the  United  States 
today  wliich  may  be  considered  as  standard  are  as  follows: 
Tamworth,  Large  Yorkshire,  Berkshire,  Chester  White, 
Hampshire,  Poland  China,  and  Duroc-Jersey. 

Tamworth. — The  Tamworth  breed  is  of  the  bacon  type. 
These  hogs  have  rather  long  legs,  a  long  snout  and  are  a  large 
breed.     They  are  not  very  broad  in  the  body,  which  is  char- 


FiG.  50. — Hampshire    (thin    rind)    sow.      (From  "Swine''  by    author    for 

Breeder's  Gazette.) 


acteristic  of  the  bacon  type.  They  are  red  in  color  and  as  far 
as  known  are  a  direct  decendants  of  the  wild  boar.  They  are, 
therefore,  a  pure  breed  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  Tam- 
worths  came  into  existence  in  Great  Britain  and  have  been  an 
improved  breed  many  years.  The  breed  is  a  good  one  for  those 
who  like  the  bacon  type. 

Large  Yorkshire.-^The  Large  Yorkshire  breed  of  swine  was 
developed  in  England.  The  breed  was  made  by  crossing  hogs 
of  southern  Europe  of  high  quality  on  large  coarse  pigs  of 
England.  The  breed  is  of  the  bacon  type.  It  is  also  long  in 
legs  but  medium  in  snout.     The  ears  are  upright  or  forward 


20K 


LI\E»STOCK    OK    TIIK    FARM 


leaning  and  the  color  is  white.  This  is  a  good  breed  of  hogs 
for  bacon  production  and  is  extensively  used  in  Canada  and 
other  bacon-producing  countries.  The  animals  are  longer 
in  body  than  the  Tarn  worth  and  not  quite  as  wide  in  ham  or 
long  in  rump.  They  furnish  the  standard  Wiltshire  side  to  the 
bacon  trade. 

Berkshire. — Berkshires   are  an   old   improved   breed   from 
England.     The  breed  was  developed  by  crossing  highly  im- 


FiG.  51. — Poland  China  sow.  (From  "Correspondence  Course  in  Swine 
Husbandry,"  by  author  for  Correspondence  College  of  Agriculture.  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.) 


proved  hogs  from  southern  Europe  on  large  coarse  hogs  of 
England.  The  southern  hogs  used  for  this  purpose  were  the 
Neapolitan,  Siamese  and  Chinese.  These  probably  date  back 
to  ancient  civilizations. 

The  Berkshire  is  a  black  hog  with  six  white  points.  These 
are  the  four  feet,  the  tail  and  parts  of  the  face  or  snout.  While 
this  is  the  characteristic  color,  sometimes  some  of  the  points 
named  are  black.  The  ear  of  the  Berkshire  is  upright  or 
forward  leaning  and  the  snout  rather  short  and  blunt  with 
some  dish  in  the  face. 


IS  WINK  2()\) 

This  breed  belongs  to  the  fat  or  lard  type  but  is  characterized 
as  a  long-bodied,  lean-meat  hog.  The  hogs  develop  a  large 
amount  of  lean  and  are  frequently  used  for  bacon  production. 
They  are  very  active.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
highly  improved  breeds  of  swine  and  therefore  one  of  the  best. 
It  must,  however,  be  kept  under  proper  conditions.  There  is 
in  this  breed  a  tendency  to  revert  to  the  original  types  conse- 
quently breeding  is  somewhat  difficult. 

Chester  White. — The  Chester  White  breed  was  developed 
in  Pennsvlvania.     It  is  a  white  breed  of  the  fat  or  lard  type. 


Fig.  52. — Duroc-Jersey  sow  heavy  in  pin. 

Its  snout  is  medium  and  the  ears  tip  over  at  the  point.  It  is  a 
popular  breed.  It  w^as  made  up  by  a  mixture  of  several  breeds 
which  were  originally  brought  over  from  Europe  by  early 
immigrants. 

Hampshire. — The  Hampshire  breed  came  from  Europe  or 
England  at  an  early  date,  but  was  developed  in  its  present  form 
in  the  United  States  at  a  very  recent  date.  It  is  black  with  a 
white  belt  around  the  front  part,  including  the  front  legs.  The 
breed  show^s  considerable  variation  between  the  lard  and  the 
bacon  types. 

Poland  China. — For  many  years  the  Poland  China  was  the 
most  popular  breed  of  swine  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
developed  in  Ohio  under  corn  belt  conditions  and  is  a  composite 
of  many  other  breeds  and  types.  This  mixture  was  so  great 
and  the  blending  of  the  characteristics  of  the  different  types  so 

14 


210 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


complete  that  when  the  breed  was  brought  out  in  the  finished 
form  it  was  in  reaUty  a  new  breed.  It  was  a  new  breed  adapted 
to  the  most  highly  developed  corn-  and  hog-producing  section 
of  the  world. 

This  breed  is  not  over  half  a  century  old.  As  time  went  on, 
however,  too  much  stress  was  laid  on  quality  and  early  matu- 
rity. This  resulted  in  small  size,  high  cost  of  production  and 
low  prolificacy.     On  this  account  the  breed  fell  into  disfavor. 


Fig.  53. — Duroc-Jersey  sow  in  thin  breeding  condition. 

At  the  same  time,  a  few  breeders  kept  in  mind  the  value  of  size, 
and  developed  the  large-type  Poland  China.  About  three  or 
four  years  ago  this  stronger  type  of  the  breed  became  suddenly 
very  popular  and  crowded  the  medium  or  fine  type  of  Poland 
China  out  of  the  field.  The  Poland  China  has  the  fancy  ear, 
two-thirds  erect  and  one-third  drooping.  The  snout  is 
medium  and  rather  straight  and  pointed.  The  color  is  black 
in  the  main  with  some  white.  One  faction  of  breeders  try  to 
hmit  the  white  to  the  six  points,  feet,  snout  and  tail,  while 
others  accept  hogs  with  white  spots  on  the  body. 

Duroc-Jersey. — The  Duroc-Jersey  was  developed  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  New  Jersey  had  red  hogs 
called  Jersey  Reds  and  in  New  York  there  was  a  red  hog  called 
Duroc.     Finally  these  got  together  and  were  called  Duroc- 


SWINE  211 

Jersey.  This  breed  is  red  in  color  and  belongs  to  the  fat  or 
lard  type.  It  is  a  popular  hog  with  the  farmer  as  it  is  well 
suited  to  average  conditions  and  when  well  cared  for  is  a  rapid 
grower.  It  is  coarse  in  quality,  however,  and  does  not  produce 
as  high  class  a  product  as  some  of  the  other  breeds.  But  in  this 
respect  rapid  improvement  is  being  made.  Duroc- Jerseys 
have  a  rather  heavy,  straight  snout  and  somewhat  heavy  ears. 
These  should  be  partly  erect  with  the  points  tipping  forward 
and  outward. 

In  producing  young,  all  the  breeds  are  good  if  properly 
selected  and  handled.  They  should  be  selected  from  prolific 
strains  with  good  constitution  and  good  length  of  body. 

SWINE  FEEDING 

It  used  to  be  thought  if  a  man  was  no  good  for  anything  else 
he  could  still  be  a  farmer  and  if  he  could  do  nothing  else  on  the 
farm  he  could  feed  hogs.  There  is  some  truth  in  this  but  at  the 
same  time  there  is  no  class  of  animals  on  the  farm  where 
scientific  feeding  and  handling  can  be  used  to  any  better  ad- 
vantage than  with  swine. 

Swine  will  eat  most  anything  and  everything  but  thrive  best 
on  concentrated  feeds.  They  can  make  good  use  of  the  by- 
products from  the  dairy  herd,  of  the  kitchen  slop,  and  of 
spoiled  and  otherwise  waste  grains.  On  this  account  a  few 
hogs  on  a  farm  are  very  profitable.  From  the  standpoint  of 
economy  of  production  also  the  hog  is  very  good.  It  is  about 
equal  to  the  dairy  cow  and  has  the  advantage  of  requiring  less 
labor. 

In  feeding  pigs  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  young  ani- 
mals and  the  breeding  stock  need  a  great  deal  of  exercise.  The 
next  thing  in  order  should  be  plenty  of  mineral  matter  such  as 
salt,  bone  meal,  ground  limestone,  or  air-slacked  lime,  hard- 
wood ashes,  and  charcoal. 

These  materials  are  needed  for  bone  construction  and  in 
digestion  and  metabolism.  Hardwood  ashes,  or  if  these  are 
not  available,  a  small  amount  of  a  weak  solution  of  concen- 
trated lye,  may  be  used  to  neutralize  the  acids  produced  in 
digestion.  The  charcoal  is  an  absorbent  and  its  function  is 
not  entirely  known  but  it  is  very  much  relished  and  must  serve 


212  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

a  purpose.  Hogs  should  have  sufficient  water  and,  as  growing 
animals,  they  need  protein.  Too  much  protein,  however,  is 
harmful. 

Milk  is  a  protein  feed  but  the  pigs  should  not  be  given  as 
much  of  this  as  they  will  eat.  For  young  pigs  after  weaning  a 
good  ration  can  be  made  by  taking  half  milk  and  half  water 
and  putting  enough  of  a  mixture  of  ground  grains  into  this  to 
make  a  thin  slop.  The  grains  used  in  such  a  case  should  be 
corn,  barley,  rye,  oats,  etc.  If  no  milk  is  available,  some 
peas  or  oil  meal  can  be  used  to  supply  protein.  But  these 
should  be  only  from  one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  grain  mixture. 

Tankage  is  a  packing-house  product  and  is  very  rich  in  pro- 
tein. A  40  per  cent,  protein  tankage  can  be  used  about  as  peas. 
But  a  60  per  cent,  protein  tankage  must  be  used  in  smaller  quan- 
tities. Mature  hogs  do  not  need  much  protein  so  should  be 
fed  more  on  the  carbohydrate  feeds. 

Hogs  are  very  fond  of  grass  and  the  legumes  such  as  alfalfa, 
clover,  peas,  vetches,  etc.  In  winter  they  will  also  eat  a  good 
deal  of  the  legume  hays.  They  should  be  given  as  much  of  this 
roughage  as  they  will  eat.  Wheat  bran  is  a  good  roughage  for 
mature  hogs  that  are  being  maintained  and  is  also  good  as  part 
of  a  ration  for  growing  pigs.  Wheat  middlings  are  good  for 
all  purposes. 

Pigs  up  to  about  five  months  old  will  eat  too  much  concen- 
trate if  they  are  given  all  they  want.  They  should  then  either 
be  fed  less  or  be  given  more  roughages.  In  feeding  some  pigs 
experimentally  one  time,  the  author  was  threatened  with 
prosecution  by  the  humane  society  because  it  was  said  that  the 
pigs  were  being  starved.  These  same  pigs,  however,  weighed 
300  pounds  per  head  when  they  were  eight  months  old. 

Brood  sows  should  be  fed  according  to  the  amount  of  work 
they  do.  If  they  raise  two  litters  a  year  or  large  litters  they 
need  to  be  fed  more  freely  than  if  they  raise  only  one  litter  or 
small  litters. 


C^HAPTER  XII 
POULTRY 

The  subject  of  poultry  husbandry  is  one  of  almost  universal 
interest.  Poultr}^  and  poultrj-  products  are  handled  on  a  large 
scale  in  a  few  parts  of  the  country,  but  most  of  the  poultry  is 
handled  as  a  side  line  by  farmers  or  others.  Many  times  the 
women  of  the  farm  look  after  the  poultry  interests. 

A  large  poultry  farm  well  managed  is  undoubtedly  profitable 
but  a  large  flock  cannot  be  handled  after  the  manner  of  a  small 
flock-  on  the  ordinary  farm.  Under  farm  conditions  the  labor 
in  caring  for  poultry  does  not  as  a  rule  cost  very  much.  Such 
labor  is  performed  b}^  children  or  other  members  of  the  family 
at  odd  times.  The  feed  requirement  of  the  farm  flock  is  slight. 
Many  times  during  the  summer  a  flock  can  live  upon  feeds  that 
are  picked  up  and  that  would  otherwise  go  to  waste.  This 
makes  farm  poultry  keeping  very  profitable. 

The  farm  poultry  not  only  is  a  source  of  pleasure  and  profit 
but  it  supplies  the  farmer  constantly  with  fresh  eggs  which,  as 
everyone  knows,  are  much  better  than  stale  ones.  Eggs  can- 
not even  be  hauled  a  few  miles  on  a  wagon  as  when  going  to 
market  without  reducing  their  value  in  flavor,  palatability, 
etc.  The  poultry  house  in  the  country  also  serves  as  the 
farmer's  market  for  fresh  meats. 

The  fact  that  fowls  do  not  grind  their  feeds  in  the  mouth,  but 
in  the  crop  makes  it  necessary  for  them  to  have  grit.  This 
helps  to  grind  the  feeds  eaten. 

Fowls  are  bred,  fed  and  given  an  environment  similar  to  that 
of  the  farm  animals.  Most  classes  of  poultry  are  noted  for 
their  activity,  consequently  must  be  given  a  wide  range  so  that 
they  ma}^  get  an  abundance  of  exercise.  This  is  especially  true 
for  the  breeding  flock  and  for  the  young  birds.  Fowls  as  well 
as  animals  if  they  have  been  properly  bred  and  developed  can 
be  fattened  in  small  enclosures. 

213 


214  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  rest  of  this  chapter  was  prepared  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Brown, 
head  of  the  poultry  department,  University  of  Minnesota, 
Northwest  School  and  Experiment  Station,  Crookston,  Minn. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  EXERCISES  FOR  FOWLS 

All  classes  of  fowls  require  a  certain  amount  of  exercise  to 
keep  them  in  good  health.  Many  poultry  keepers  appear 
to  forget  this,  especially  in  winter  when  the  fowls  are  confined 
to  pens.  As  a  rule  their  method  of  feeding  is  to  scatter  the  food 
on  the  bare  floor  or  feed  it  from  troughs  thus  enabling  the 
fowls  to  eat  it  quickly  with  the  least  amount  of  effort.  A  safer 
rule  to  follow  when  feeding,  and  one  which  should  keep  the 
birds  in  excellent  condition,  is  to  compel  them  to  scratch  in 
deep  dry  straw  for  all  whole  grain  fed,  or  in  other  words,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  ration  should  be  fed  in  the  litter.  Ducks 
and  geese,  which  naturally  do  not  scratch,  require  roomy  yards 
and  a  pond  or  trough  to  supply  them  with  the  necessary  means 
of  exercising. 

FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 

If  we  would  but  stop  to  consider  what  fowls  live  on  when  at 
Jberty  during  the  summer  months  the  problem  of  feeding 
would  be  very  much  simplified.  On  their  daily  rounds,  they 
secure  grain  food,  vegetable  food,  meat  food,  grit  and  water, 
all  of  which  must  be  supplied  in  a  clean,  wholesome  condition 
when  they  are  confined  to  houses  and  yards  if  we  would  have 
them  healthy  and  thrifty. 

Grain. — Wheat,  which  is  one  of  the  best  grains  for  poultry, 
is  probably  the  most  popular  with  poultrymen  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  from  the  fact  that  corn  is  not  yet 
extensively  grown  in  these  parts.     Fowls  of  all  kinds  relish  it. 

Wheat  bran  is  much  used  in  mashes  and  is  often  fed  by  itself 
dry,  from  a  food  hopper.  It  helps  materially  in  adding  bulk 
to  the  ration.  Shorts  is  also  much  used  in  mashes  and  is 
splendid  as  a  mixture  for  boiled  vegetables  or  cooked  meat. 

(3orn,  which  is  more  extensively  fed  to  poultry  than  any 
other  grain,  is  much  relished  by  them.  Care  must  be  exercised 
in  feeding  it  as  it  is  heating  and  fattening.  It  is  best  adapted 
to  winter  use.     It  is  fed  whole,  ground  and  cracked. 


POULTUV  215 

Oats,  from  its  composition,  should  be  an  ideal  poultry  food. 
But  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  hull,  fowls  do  not  relish  it  like 
other  grains.  However,  its  palatability  can  be  wonderfully 
improved  by  soaking  it  in  water  for  several  hours  or  by  allow- 
ing the  grain  to  sprout. 

Barley,  either  whole  or  ground,  is  successfully  fed  by  many 
poultrymen.  Although  it  is  hard  and  carries  a  large  amount 
of  hull,  it  is  quite  often  ranked  next  to  wheat  in  feeding  value. 

Buckwheat  is  much  thought  of  in  some  localities  as  a  food  for 
laying  hens.  And  from  its  close  resemblance  to  corn  in  fatten- 
ing properties  makes  a  fine  addition  to  a  ration  for  fattening 
fowls. 

Millet  seed,  though  small,  is  excellent  chicken  feed  but  must 
be  fed  in  small  quantities  on  account  of  its  richness.  It  is 
splendid  when  mixed  with  other  grains,  as  a  chick  food. 

Meat  Foods. — Meat  foods  are  usually  the  most  expensive 
poultry  foods.  They  are  given  as  a  substitute  for  the  worms 
and  insects  which  form  the  natural  summer  food  for  fowls  when 
on  free  range.  Best  results  in  egg  production,  or  growth  in 
young  stock  cannot  be  obtained  unless  some  animal  food  is 
given.  Even  when  fowls  are  on  free  range  it  often  pays  to 
feed  them  a  small  amount. 

There  are  many  forms  in  which  animal  food  can  be  supplied 
to  poultry.  Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  among  the  best 
and  most  economical  of  these.  Commercial  beef  scraps, 
butcher  scraps,  green  cut  bone  and  cooked  refuse  meat  are  also 
excellent  but  as  a  rule  are  difficult  to  obtain  and  are  expensive. 

Green  Feeds. — When  fowls  are  on  free  range  they  eat  an 
abundance  of  green  food  in  the  form  of  grass,  clover,  weeds, 
and  roots.  This  must  be  supplied  to  them  in  winter  or  when 
they  are  shut  in  pens  and  fenced  in  small  bare  yards.  Cab- 
bage, mangels,  turnips,  rape,  clover  hay,  and  sprouted  grains 
are  among  the  many  forms  of  green  food  available  for  poultry 
and  should  be  fed  judiciously  once  every  day. 

Grit  and  Oyster  Shell. — All  classes  of  poultry  require  grit 
and  oyster  shell.  They  have  no  teeth,  therefore  they  must  be 
supplied  with  coarse  sand  or  crushed  rock  in  some  form  to  aid 
digestion.  Oyster  shell  is  required  more  particularly  by  laying 
hens.     They  require  a  large  am.ount  of  lime  for  use  in  forming 


216  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

egg  shells.  Lime  can  best  be  supplied  as  crushed  oyster  shells 
or  clam  shells.  These  can  usually  be  purchased  at  reasonable 
prices  from  local  grocery  men  or  dealers  in  poultry  supplies. 

Feeding  Laying  Hens. — The  general  rule  for  feeding  hens  for 
egg  production  is  to  give  them  three  meals  a  day.  A  mixture 
of  whole  grain  is  scattered  in  deep  litter  on  the  floor  in  the 
morning  and  evening.  At  noon  a  wet  mash  is  given  or  if  the 
dry  method  of  feeding  is  practised  the  task  of  feeding  the  noon 
meal  is  dispensed  with  as  the  mash  is  fed  dry  from  hoppers 
kept  filled  and  open  at  all  times.  Green  food  is  given  at  noon 
and  grit,  oyster  shell  and  water  are  kept  constantly  before  them. 

Feeding  Chicks. — Little  chicks  should  not  be  fed  until  they 
are  at  least  forty-eight  hours  old.  Nature  provides  them  with 
a  portion  of  the  parent  egg  within  their  systems  to  sustain  life 
for  several  days.  They  should  be  fed  sparingly  at  first  and 
often.  Some  poultry  men  recommend  feeding  every  two  hours 
during  the  day  for  the  first  week,  alternating  with  a  wet  mash 
and  a  cracked  grain  mixture.  After  that  the  number  of  meals 
per  day  is  lessened  gradually  until  at  the  age  of  three  weeks 
three  feeds  a  day  are  given,  cracked  grain  morning  and  night 
and  mash  at  noon.  This  latter  practice  is  continued  until  the 
chicks  are  ready  for  winter  quarters  in  the  fall  when  a  gradual 
change  is  made  to  a  ration  suital^le  to  mature  fowls. 

FATTENING  POULTRY. 

It  is  a  wasteful  practice  to  sell  poultry  without  fattening 
them.  Buyers  always  pay  a  premium  for  well-fleshed  fowls. 
As  a  rule  ten  days  or  two  weeks  of  liberal  feeding  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  put  most  fowls  in  first-class  condition.  Chickens 
are  either  fattened  in  crates  made  for  the  purpose  or  in  small 
pens.  Each  method  has  its  successful  advocate.  If  fed  in 
crates  they  are  given  a  mash  composed  of  ground  grains  mois- 
tened with  milk.  When  fed  in  pens  they  are  usually  fed  whole 
or  cracked  grains  and  some  form  of  animal  food.  Care  must 
be  taken  in  either  case  to  feed  sparingly  the  first  day  or  two, 
after^which  they  should  be  fed  all  they  will  eat  up  clean  three 
times  a  day  until  fattened.  Turkeys,  ducks  and  geese  are 
almost  always  fattened  in  pens  and  j^ards  and  require  about 
the  same  length  of  time  to  fatten  as  chickens. 


POULTRY  217 

THE  INCUBATOR 

The  numerous  styles  of  incubators  manufactured  today  are 
so  well  perfected  that  the  selection  of  one  is  largely  a  matter  of 
personal  choice.  There  are  two  types  offered  for  sale,  the  hot- 
air  and  the  hot-water  machines.  The  hot-air  machine  ap- 
pears to  be  the  favorite  among  most  poultry  keepers  owing 
chiefly  to  the  fact  that  there  is  practically  no  limit  to  its  life 
of  usefulness.  The  hot-water  machine,  though  highly  recom- 
mended by  man}^  is  apt  to  give  trouble  sooner  or  later,  through 
leakage  unless  the  water  pipes  are  made  of  high-class  material. 
When  operating  an  incubator  the  manufacturer's  directions 
should  always  be  closely  followed  as  he  knows  best  the  require- 
ments necessary  for  a  successful  hatch  with  his  particular  make 
of  machine. 

The  Brooder. — The  advice  regarding  the  selection  of  a 
brooder  is  similar  to  that  of  an  incubator.  There  are  many 
good  makes  and  all  of  them  will  rear  chicks  provided  the  opera- 
tor is  careful  in  following  the  accompanying  directions.  A 
brooder  is  an  economic  necessity  when  chicks  are  raised  in  large 
numbers  due  to  its  saving  of  labor  and  when  a  no  sitting 
variet}^  of  fowls  is  kept  its  services  are  indispensable. 

THE  SITTING  HEN 

A  great  deal  of  the  so-called  trouble  with  sitting  hens  is  that 
we  do  not  understand  them  or  have  not  the  patience  or  per- 
severence  necessary  for  success.  When  a  hen  becomes  broody 
she  should  be  gently  removed,  preferably  in  the  evening,  to  a 
quiet  place  where  a  good  roomy  nest  has  been  prepared  for  her. 
This  nest  should  be  at  least  14  inches  square  and  6  inches  deep. 
It  should  be  filled  with  about  4  inches  of  fine  dry  earth  slightly 
hollowed  and  lined  with  a  small  amount  of  chaff  or  fine  hay. 
Then  when  the  hen  is  placed  on  the  nest  she  should  be  set  on  a 
few  stale  or  china  eggs  for  a  day  or  so  or  until  she  takes  kindly 
to  her  new  surroundings  after  which  the  good  eggs  may  be 
given  to  her.  She  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  insect 
powder  at  least  twice  during  the  hatching  period  to  destroy  all 
vermin  upon  her.  She  should  be  let  off  the  nest  for  a  few 
minutes  each  dav  for  food  and  water. 


218  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

CARE  OF  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING 

It  is  important  when  saving  eggs  for  hatching  to  keep  them 
in  as  perfect  condition  as  possible.  For  this  reason  they  should 
be  gathered  often  during  cold  weather  to  prevent  freezing  or 
chilling.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  free  from  bad 
odors  of  any  kind  and  the  temperature  should  range  below  70 
degrees  Fahrenheit  and  above  40  degrees  Fahrenheit.  If  kept 
in  a  temperature  above  70  degrees  they  deteriorate  rapidly. 
From  ten  days  to  two  wrecks  is  as  long  a  period  as  it  is  safe  to 
hold  them  before  setting  and  during  this  time  they  should  be 
turned  daily. 

PRESERVING  EGGS 

Eggs  are  usually  preserved  in  the  summer  months  when  they 
are  cheapest  and  are  held  till  cold  weather  sets  in  or  until  the 
price  goes  up.  There  are  numerous  methods  for  preserving 
eggs  but  probably  the  most  successful  of  all  of  them  is  what  is 
known  as  the  waterglass  method.  This  consists  in  dissolving 
one  part  of  waterglass  (sodium  silicate)  in  nine  parts  of  water 
which  has  previously  been  boiled.  This  liquid  is  poured  over 
the  eggs  which  have  previously  been  placed  in  earthenware 
jars  or  tubs.  For  best  results  the  eggs  should  be  strictly  fresh 
when  placed  in  the  solution  and  they  should  be  stored  in  a  clean 
cool  cellar. 

POULTRY  HOUSES 

One  of  the  chief  essentials  to  success  in  poultry  keeping  is  the 
possession  of  a  suitable  poultry  house.  This  should  be  eco- 
nomical of  construction,  convenient,  comfortable,  dry,  well 
lighted  and  well  ventilated.  Improper  housing  affects  the 
vigor  and  vitality  of  fowls.  This  is  seen  in  small  egg  yields, 
poor  hatches  and  weak  chicks.  Therefore,  they  must  be  kept 
in  a  healthy  condition  if  they  are  to  be  profitable. 

Location. — A  poultry  house  should  preferably  face  south. 
It  should  be  located  on  rather  high  ground. where  good  drainage 
can  be  assured,  otherwise  if  the  site  is  not  a  dry  one  it  should 
be  made  so  by  imder  drainage  or  by  grading  so  as  to  run  the 
water  away  from  the  building.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
dampness  is  always  fatal  to  fowls. 


POULTRY  219 

Foundation. — The  founclation  is  best  made  of  concrete  as  it 
is  more  durable  and  economical  in  the  long  run  than  any  other 
form  of  construction.  It  should  be  made  deep  enough  to  pre- 
vent animals  burrowing  beneath  and  gaining  access  to  the  in- 
side and  high  enough  to  prevent  surface  water  from  running  into 
the  house.  The  walls  should  be  heavy  enough  to  support 
the  building  placed  upon  them. 

Floors. — There  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  among  poultry  men 
as  to  which  is  the  best  floor  for  a  poultry  house.  Some  prefer 
earth,  some  wood,  and  others  concrete  floors.  Earth  floors  to 
be  satisfactory  must  be  protected  by  rat-proof  foundations, 
they  must  be  graded  high  enough  above  the  outside  level  of  the 
ground  to  make  them  dry,  and  on  some  soils  that  are  very 
moist  several  inches  of  crushed  rock,  cinders  or  coarse  gravel 
must  be  filled  in  below  the  surface  of  the  floor  to  break  up 
capillary  attraction  which  is  the  cause  of  moisture  coming  up 
from  below.  Wood  floors  are  not  lasting,  they  are  difficult 
to  keep  clean  and  sanitary  and  are  apt  to  harbor  rats  and  mice 
beneath  them.  Concrete  floors,  if  made  smooth  and  if  the 
grading  beneath  them  is  made  the  same  as  we  have  described 
for  an  earth  floor,  no  do^l  will  prove  satisfactory.  There  will 
be  no  difficulty  about  them  being  cold  if  kept  covered  with  a 
little  earth  or  straw. 

The  Walls. — The  walls  should  be  made  tight.  They  should 
be  high  enough  so  that  the  ceiling  will  not  be  so  low  that  a 
person  doing  the  work  would  have  to  stoop.  The  construction 
of  the  walls  will  depend  upon  the  climate  in  which  they  are  to 
be  erected  and  also  upon  the  amount  of  protection  afforded 
from  winds,  by  trees  or  other  wind  breaks.  In  most  parts  of 
the  United  States  single  board  walls  are  sufficient  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  fowls  but  in  cold  sections  where  low  temperatures 
and  high  winds  prevail  double  walls  must  be  used. 

The  Roof. — There  are  several  good  types  of  roofs  in 
common  use,  namelj^,  the  shed  roof,  the  gable  roof,  the  com- 
bination roof,  and  the  semi-monitor  roof.  The  shed  roof  is  the 
most  popular  style  of  any  and  is  easiest  to  build.  The  gable 
roof  provides  a  large  garret  space  which  is  often  filled  with 
straw,  making  the  house  warmer  and  dryer.  The  combination 
roof  is  a  type  midway  between  a  shed  roof  and  a  gable  roof  and 


220  LIVKSTOCK    ON    'J  HE    FAKIM 

is  supposed  to  combine  the  good  features  of  both.  The  semi- 
monitor  style  is  commonly  used  on  houses  that  are  extra  wide 
and  where  a  central  alleyway  with  pens  on  each  side  is  desired. 
The  upper  windows  light  the  rear  pens  and  the  lower  the  front 
pens. 

Ceiling. — It  is  seldom  desirable  to  ceil  the  roof  of  a  poultr}^ 
house  because  of  the  extra  cost  entailed.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  shed-type  house.  How^ever,  in  building  the  gable  or 
combination  roof  it  is  necessary  to  use  tee  beams  to  strengthen 
it.  In  this  case  unless  the  ceiling  is  boarded  the  fowls  are 
apt  to  use  these  beams  for  roosting.  When  straw  is  stored  in 
the  attic  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  house  dry  it  can  be 
made  much  more  effective  if  the  ceiling  boards  are  spaced  an 
inch  or  two  apart  to  permit  the  moisture-laden  air  to  circulate 
freely  through  the  straw. 

The  Windows. — A  safe  rule  to  go  by  when  planning  the 
windows  in  the  house  is  to  allow  about  1  square  foot  of  glass  to 
every  16  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Too  much  glass  makes  a 
house  cold  at  night  and  too  hot  during  the  day.  The  position 
of  the  windows  is  very  important;  they  should  be  high  and 
placed  up  and  down,  rather  than  horizontally  and  low.  They 
should  l^e  placed  high  enough  so  that  on  the  shortest  day  of  the 
year  the  sun  will  shine  well  up  on  the  north  wall.  This  will 
insure  a  plentiful  supply  of  sunshine  for  the  fowls  during  the 
time  they  are  confined  to  their  pens  on  accoimt  of  winter 
weather. 

Ventilation. — Most  poultry  houses  when  properly  built  do 
not  need  ventilators.  The  large  amount  of  air  space  in  a 
poultry  house  makes  the  systematic  change  of  air  so  uncertain 
and  unsatisfactory  that  many  experienced  poultrymen  who 
once  used  so-called  scientifically  planned  ventilating  systems 
have  gone  back  to  the  use  of  the  windows.  The  amount  of 
fresh  air  being  regulated  by  opening  or  closing  the  windows 
according  to  the  temperature  outside.  On  cold  stormy  days 
or  nights  coarse  muslin  or  burlap  is  placed  over  the  open  space 
in  the  windows  to  prevent  drafts  and  also  the  snow  from 
coming  in.  During  warm  weather  sufficient  ventilation  can  be 
obtained  by  removing  the  windows. 

The  Roosts. — The  roosts  should  be  placed  well  away  from 


POULTRY 


221 


the  windows  to  avoid  drafts.  For  this  reason  the  north  side 
of  the  house  is  usually  the  place  for  them.  They  should  be 
placed  at  the  same  level  to  prevent  crowding  of  the  fowls  which 
is  so  customary,  where  they  are  arranged  at  different  levels. 
A  platform  should  be  placed  under  the  roosts  to  catch  the 
droppings,  far  enough  below  to  permit  cleaning   without  re- 


FiQ.  54. — Barred  Plymouth  Rock  rooster.     (Kaiipp.) 


moving  the  roosts.  The  working  rule  for  roosting  space  is  to 
allow  6  to  8  inches  for  each  fowl  with  the  roosts  placed  12  to 
15  inches  apart. 

The  Nests. — The  nests  should  be  convenient  for  gathering 
the  eggs  and  should  be  removable  for  cleaning  and  disinfecting. 
They  must  be  somewhat  dark  to  prevent  the  hens  scratching 
the  nesting  material  out  and  thus  breaking  and  eating  the  eggs. 

In  constructing  the  nests  one  should  allow  from  12  to  15 
inches  head  room  and  the  nests  should  be  about  14  inches 
square  and  6  inches  deep.     It  is  a  good  policy  to  make  large 


222 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


rather  than  small  nests.  Hens  Hke  large  nests  and  they  should 
be  deep  enough  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  being  rolled  out  but 
not  so  deep  that  the  fowls  will  break  eggs  when  getting  into 
the  nest. 

Alleyways. — Alleyways  are  objectionable  for  the  reason 
that  they  occupy  much  valuable  floor  space  which  might  be 
utilized  for  more  fowls  or  in  giving  those  usually  kept  more 
room.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  to  think  that  they  always  save 
time  in  opening  and  shutting  gates  because  in  many  instances 


Fig.  55. — Pen  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hens. 

the  attendant  has  to  go  inside  the  pens  anyway  to  do  the  feed- 
ing and  look  after  the  hens.  Unless  the  feeder  goes  in  among 
his  fowls  occasionally  they  become  nervous  and  timid  and  he 
cannot  keep  in  close  touch  with  them,  as  is  possible  if  he  walks 
through  the  pens  while  going  his  daily  rounds. 

The  Dusting  Box. — Dusting  is  as  beneficial  to  the  fowl  as 
bathing  is  to  the  human  being.  By  dusting,  fowls  scour  off 
the  scurf  and  scales  from  the  skin  and  rid  themselves  of  vermin. 
A  good  dusting  box  should  be  provided  for  every  flock  more 
especially  when  they  are  confined  in  their  pens.     A  good  place 


POULTRY 


223 


for  a  box  of  this  kind  is  before  a  south  window  where  the  sun 
can  shine  directly  into  it.  Dry  fine  sandy  loam  or  road  dust 
or  sifted  coal  ashes  make  splencUd  dusting  material. 

Food  Hopper. — Food  hoppers  should  be  constructed  to  pre- 
vent fowls  wasting  the  contents  as  much  as  possible.  They 
should  be  made  with  rather  wide  deep-slatted  troughs  and  sus- 
pended on  a  platform  a  foot  or  so  above  the  floor.  If  the  hop- 
pers are  made  with  sloping  top  to  prevent  chickens  roosting 
on  them  the  task  of  keeping  them  clean  will  be  materially 
lessened. 

Drinking  Vessels. — Drinking  vessels  should  be  of  a  style 


Fig.  56.— White  Plymouth  Rocks. 

easy  to  clean  and  keep  in  a  sanitary  condition.  One  of  the 
best  types  in  use  and  a  cheap  one  is  a  galvanized  or  enameled 
kitchen  pan  4  inches  deep  and  wide  enough  for  the  purpose 
required.  The  drinking  vessel  should  be  protected  from  dust 
and  htter  by  a  slatted  cover  and  also  should  be  raised  above  the 
floor  similar  to  the  food  hoppers. 

The  Size  of  Poultry  House. — The  working  unit  for  esti- 
mating the  size  of  a  poultry  house  is  the  number  of  square 
feet  of  floor  space  required  for  each  fowl.  A  safe  rule  to  fol- 
low when  figuring  the  capacity  of  a  house  is  to  allow  from  5  to 
8  square  feet  of  floor  space  for  small  flocks  of  25  fowls  or  less 
and  from  4  to  5  square  feet  of  floor  space  for  fowls  for  larger 
flocks. 


224 


LIVESTOCK    UN    THE    1  AKM 

MITES  AND  LICE 


Mites  and  lice  are  two  different  kinds  of  vermin  which  infest 
poultry.  The  mite  lives  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the 
poultry  house  and  attacks  the  fowls  while  they  are  roosting. 
It  lives  by  sucking  the  blood  from  the  fowl.  The  louse  lives 
on  the  body  of  the  bird  and  gains  its  living  by  feeding  on  the 
scales  and  scurf  of  the  skin  or  plumage.  Mites,  unlike  Hce, 
cannot  be  effectively  destroyed  by  dusting  the  fowls  with  in- 


itio. 57. — White  Leghorns. 

sect  powder  or  by  providing  them  with  a  dust  bath.  They 
must  be  attacked  in  their  haunts  by  spraying  or  brushing  a 
liquid  preparation  such  as  kerosene  or  whitewash  or  some  good 
disinfectant. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  POULTRY 

The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  recognizes  over  100 
breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry  but  for  convenience  sake  we 
shall  classify  them  as  to  utility,  namely,  general-purpose 
breeds,  egg  breeds,  and  meat  breeds. 

General-purpose  Breeds. — Chickens  coming  under  the 
heading  of  general-purpose  breeds  may  be  described  as  hardy, 
active,  thrifty  fowls  of  medium  size  and  weight,  capable  of 


POl'LTKV 


22r, 


putting  on  flesh  and  producing  higii-class  market  eggs  eco- 
nomically. They  are  usually  marketed  at  the  age  of  five  to 
seven  months  when  they  should  dress  when  fattened  from 
5  to  7  pounds  in  w^eight. 

Egg  Breeds. — The  so-called  egg  breeds  of  chicken  are  small 
active  hardy  fowls,  which  mature  quickly,  make  excellent 
broilers  when  dressed  at  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  and 
are  very  prolific  layers  of  large  white  eggs.     They  are  often 


Fig.   .58. — "Rhorlo  Island  "Rod  lions  nnd  pullets. 


spoken  of  as  non-sitters  though  a  small  percentage  of  them 
do  sit  and  make  excellent  mothers. 

Meat  Breeds. — The  meat  breeds  of  chickens  consist  of  the 
largest  fowls.  As  a  rule  they  are  classed  as  fair  layers  of  large 
brown  eggs.  They  are  splendid  sitters  and  mothers  and  on 
account  of  their  abundant  plumage  are  capable  of  withstand- 
ing extreme  temperatures  of  cold  without  materially  affecting 
their  egg  yield.  In  sections  of  the  country  where  capons  are  in 
demand,  the  meat  breeds  are  considered  the  best  for  the  pro- 
duction of  this  class  of  dressed  poultry. 

Classification. — The  principal  breeds  of  chickens  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  General-purpose  hens,  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Wyandottes,   Orpingtons,  Rhode  Island  Reds,   Hou- 

15 


226 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


dans;  egg  breeds,  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  Hamburgs,  Red  Caps, 
and  Andulasians;  meat  breeds,  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Langshan, 
Tavoralle. 

TURKEYS 

Turkey  raising  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of  the 
poultry  industry.  In  the  newer  sections  of  the  United  States 
where  abundance  of  range  is  available  and  where  diseases  are 
not  established  turkeys  grow  and  thrive  to  a  wonderful  degree. 


Fig.  59.— Bronze  turkeys.     A  small  farm  flock.     (Photo  from  Earl  Horswill, 
Black  River  Falls,  Wisconsin.) 


However,  for  many  years,  breeders  exj)erienced  great  difficulty 
in  raising  them  to  marketable  age  due  to  the  fact  that  diseases 
are  so  prevalent.  Indeed,  in  many  localities  the  industry  is 
almost  at  a  standstill.  The  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Experiment  Station  at  Rhode  Island 
after  exhaustive  experiments  and  investigations  recommend 
that  in  infected  districts  turkeys  should  be  reared  on  new  or 
cultivated  ground,  with  plenty  of  range.  Where  this  advice 
has  been  put  into  practice  fair  success  has  been  attained. 


POULTRY  227 

Of  the  eight  or  ten  varieties  of  turkeys  commonly  bred  in  tlie 
United  States  the  bronze  appears  to  be  the  most  popular  owing 
chiefly  to  its  large  size  and  hardiness.  The  White  Holland,  a 
medium-sized  turkey,  is  probably  next  in  popularity.  It  is 
noted  for  its  docility  and  on  markets  where  a  smaller  bird  is  in 
demand  it  finds  a  ready  sale.  The  Naragansette,  Slate,  Black, 
Buff  and  Bourbon  Red  varieties  as  yet  are  bred  in  compara- 
tively small  numbers  by  farmers  though  they  are  quite  popular 
with  fanciers. 

Housing  Turkeys. — Turkeys  do  not  need  as  warm  houses  as 
chickens.  In  fact,  they  seldom  thrive  as  well  as  they  do  when 
roosting  in  the  open.  Even  in  very  severe  winter  weather  the 
common  practice  of  many  of  our  leading  turkey  breeders  is  to 
allow  the  breeding  turkeys  to  roost  in  a  good  thick  grove  of 
trees  or  to  build  a  shed  with  the  south  side  left  open.  In  the 
northern  sections  of  the  country,  more  especially  in  the  prairie 
sections,  turkeys  should  be  provided  with  shelter  to  protect 
them  from  the  cold  winds  and  blizzards.  Their  feeding  and 
scratching  grounds  should  be  littered  with  straw  to  induce  them 
to  exercise  and  as  a  protection  for  their  feet  in  zero  weather. 
They  should  never  be  housed  or  fed  along  with  other  fowls  as 
they  are  so  apt  to  injure  them  through  fighting. 

Feeding  Turkeys. — A¥hen  turkeys  are  at  liberty  in  the 
summer  time  they  require  very  little  grain.  Some  breeders 
feed  only  enough  to  keep  them  from  wandering  away  too  far 
from  the  buildings.  During  winter  the  usual  practice  is  to 
feed  a  mixture  of  whole  grains  twice  a  day  with  water  and  grit 
within  reach  at  all  times. 

Feeding  Young  Turkeys. — Young  turkeys  will  not  eat  for 
the  first  day  or  two,  hence  they  should  be  kept  quiet  during 
that  period.  When  feeding  commences  a  good  practice  to 
follow  is  to  feed  them  similar  to  the  method  of  feeding  little 
chicks  excepting  that  the  young  turkeys  require  more  green 
food  and  need  not  be  fed  more  than  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

DUCKS 

The  duck  industry  of  this  country  has  developed  wonderfully 
in  the  past  twenty-five  years.  In  the  New  England  States 
and  the  Central  States  many  large  commercial  duck  plants 


228 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


have  been  established  where  thousands  of  ducklings  are  reared 
for  the  market  every  year.  These  are  hatched  and  reared 
artificially  and  are  usually  killed  and  dressed  at  twelve  weeks  of 
age. 

Among  the  many  popular  varieties  of  ducks  are  the  Pekin, 
the  Aylesby,  the  Raven,  the  Cayuga,  the  Indian  Runner,  and 
the  Muscovy. 

Feeding  Breeding  Ducks. — Breeding  ducks  are  usually  fed 
on  ground  grains  and  mill  feeds  mixed  with  water  or  milk. 
Some  duck  raisers  boil  vegetables  and  other  food  for  them  but 


mi 

jii 

[ 

Fir,.   00.— Pekin  chicks. 


this  is  unnecessary  as  they  do  just  as  well  on  raw  foods.  A\  hole 
grain  is  often  fed  and  ducks  appear  to  thrive  on  it  but  they  do 
much  better  and  it  is  more  economical  if  fed  ground.  They 
require  plenty  of  green  food  every  day  as  well  as  grit,  oyster 
shell  and  plenty  of  water  for  swimming  and  drinking. 

Feeding  Ducklings. — Ducklings  should  be  fed  entirely  on 
soft  food  and  like  other  young  stock  should  not  be  fed  before 
they  are  at  least  twenty-four  hours  old.  The  first  few  rations 
should  consist  of  bread  moistened  with  milk  or  water  or  hard- 
boiled  egg  mixed  with  four  times  its  weight  of  dry  bread. 
After  this  a  good  poultry  mash  fed  three  or  foiu*  times  a  day 
should  be  given.  It  is  important  to  keep  drinking  water 
close  by  at  feeding  time  as  they  require  plenty  of  it  along  with 


POULTRY 


229 


their  food.  Except  in  the  case  of  rearing  duckUngs  as  breed- 
ing stock,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  swim  as  it  has  a  ten- 
dency to  keep  them  lean.  Green  food  and  grit  should  be  fed 
daily  to  the  ducklings  provided  they  are  not  on  free  range. 

GEESE 
Unlike  the  duck  industry,  the  rearing  of  geese  in  large  flocks 
has  not  met  with  the  same  degree  of  success.  It  is  true  there 
are  numerous  large  ranges  devoted  exclusively  to  the  culture  of 
geese  but  by  far  the  greater  bulk  of  the  goose  crop  comes  from 
the  small  flocks  of  the  farms  of  the  country.  Geese  are  raised 
economically  as  they  live  almost  entirely  by  foraging. 


Fig.  61. — Toulou.se  geese. 

The  most  common  l:>reeds  of  geese  are  the  Toulouse,  the 
Embden,  the  African  and  the  Chinese. 

Feeding  Breeding  Geese. — Breeding  geese  when  kept  in 
confinement  should  be  provided  with  plenty  of  green  food  and 
not  too  much  grain  or  they  may  become  over  fat.  They  re- 
quire grit,  oyster  shells  and  water  for  drinking  and  swimming. 
These  should  be  in  constant  supply.  While  on  range  the  geese 
require  little  or  no  attention  provided  the  pasture  is  good  and 
only  during  the  laying  period  would  they  be  benefited  by  a 
small  amount  of  grain  each  day. 


230  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

Feeding  Goslings.^ — Young  goslings  should  be  kept  quiet 
and  comfortable  for  two  or  three  days,  then  they  should  be 
given  a  little  soft  food  such  as  bread  soaked  in  milk  or  water 
or  a  mash  similar  to  that  fed  little  chicks.  At  the  end  of  a 
week^s  time  if  the  weather  is  favorable  and  pasture  is  good 
they  will  thrive  splendidly  on  the  green  food  alone.  Grit  and 
plenty  of  water  must  always  be  within  reach  for  them. 

GUINEAS 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  guineas  have  been  con- 
sidered as  of  any  importance  beyond  that  of  protecting  the 
barnyard  flocks  from  the  ravages  of  hawks  and  crows  and  to 
this  day  many  farm  flocks  are  considered  incomplete  without 
the  addition  of  a  pair  or  more  of  these  screeching  birds. 
Whether  the  protection  they  afford  extends  beyond  the  mere 
fact  that  they  sound  a  note  of  warning  to  the  poultry  keeper 
or  his  flock  has  always  been  a  matter  of  doubt  in  the  mind  of 
the  writer  who  has  been  a  close  observer  of  these  fowls  for 
many  years. 

The  rearing  of  guineas  as  a  commercial  undertaking  has 
not  yet  developed  to  any  marked  degree,  though  a  constantly 
increasing  demand  for  dressed  fowls  and  eggs  of  the  variety 
should  open  a  wide  field  for  enterprising  poultrymen. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  guineas,  the  Pearl  and  the  White. 

PEAFOWL 

The  peafowl,  generally  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  India, 
belongs  to  the  Grouse  family  and  has  long  been  domesticated. 
It  is  bred  usually  by  people  who  admire  the  wonderfully  bril- 
liant plumage  of  the  cock.  The  flesh  is  much  relished  by 
many  but  no  great  demand  for  it  has  ever  warranted  its  being 
bred  in  large  numbers  for  market  purposes. 

The  male  is  almost  as  large  as  the  .bronze  turkey  and  from 
tip  of  beak  to  end  of  tail  he  measures  about  6  feet.  The  female 
is  much  smaller  and  of  modest  plumage.  The  male  is  often 
credited  with  being  troublesome  in  the  poultry  yard,  killing 
young  chickens  and  ducks  and  even  mature  fowls. 


POULTRY  231 

PIGEONS 

While  pigeons  are  not  usually  mentioned  when  speaking  of 
various  kinds  of  profitable  farm  stock,  still  the  possibilities 
of  making  them  profitable  are  so  marked  that  we  believe  we 
are  warranted  in  a  brief  discussion  of  them. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  pigeons  bred  by  fanciers 
but  experienced  breeders  who  rear  them  and  sell  them  as 
squabs  recommend  only  two  varieties,  the  Homers  and  the 
Runts.  These  two  breeds  are  usually  crossed  with  the  idea 
that  the  cross  produces  a  finer  quality  of  dressed  product. 
The  squabs  are  usually  marketed  when  they  weigh  from  J^  to 
J^  pound  each.  At  these  weights  the  producers  realize  from 
$3.50  to  $10  per  dozen  for  them. 

Pigeons  should  be  housed  away  from  other  stock.  A  loft 
or  upstairs  room,  free  from  drafts  and  comfortably  warm,  makes 
an  excellent  coop  for  them.  The  interior  equipment  should 
consist  of  nests,  perches,  drinking  and  bathing  fountains. 
About  2  square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allowed  for  each 
adult  bird.  If  the  birds  are  to  be  confined  in  flight  yards 
then  twice  as  much  ground  space  should  be  allotted  each  bird 
in  the  yards. 

The  manner  of  feeding  pigeons  is  not  unlike  that  of  other 
classes  of  fowls.  A  variety  of  grains  is  usually  fed.  Cracked 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  millet  and  buckwheat  and  other  small  seeds 
are  used.  A  small  supply  of  salt  and  grit  should  be  kept  be- 
fore them  at  all  times.  As  the  squabs  are  fed  by  the  old  birds 
it  is  essential  that  the  parents  be  well  fed.  The  floor  of  the 
coop  should  be  well  covered  with  clean  dry  sand.  This  makes 
an  excellent  place  for  scattering  the  food. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SCIENTIFIC  SWINE  FEEDING 

This  discussion  is  based  largely  on  research  work  b}'  the  author  at 
the  University  of  Illinois.  It  is  a  summary  of,  and  somewhat  similar 
to  parts  of  earlier  publications  by  the  author,  namely,  "Swine/' published 
by  the  Breeder's  Gazette,  Chicago:  Illinois  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
ton  bulletins  and  circulars;  and  "A  Correspondence  Course  in  Swine 
Husbandry,"  published  by  The  Correspondence  College  of  Agriculture, 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

The  principles  outlined  in  this  chapter  apply  to  the  feeding 
of  other  animals,  once  the  necessary  amounts  of  nutrients  have 
been  determined. 

EXPLANATION    OF   TERMS 

Nutrients. — The  ingredients  or  compounds  of  a  feed  such  as 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  ether  extract  or  fat,  and  also  min- 
eral matter  and  water. 

Digestible  Nutrients. — Those  portions  of  the  nutrients  that 
are  absorbed  in  the  alimentary  tract  and  not  passed  out  in  the 
feces. 

Coefficient  of  Digestibility. — The  per  cent,  of  a  feed  or  of  a 
nutrient  that  is  digested.  The  total  quantity  eaten  minus 
that  appearing  in  the  feces  divided  by  the  total  quantity  gives 
the  coefficient  of  digestibility  or  the  per  cent,  digested. 

Concentrated  Feed. — A  feed  that  contains  a  comparatively 
large  per  cent,  of  digestible  nutrients  and  a  comparatively 
small  per  cent,  of  undigestible  material,  or  in  other  words  a 
feed  that  is  not  bulky. 

Roughage. — The  opposite  of  a  concentrate.  A  bulky  feed, 
or  one  containing  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  undigestible 
material. 

Metabolism. — This  is  the  process  by  which  food  is  built  up 
into  living  matter,  and  by  which  living  matter  is  broken  down 

232 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  233 

into  simpler  products  within  a  cell  or  organism.  The  process 
goes  on  after  the  food  is  digested  and  taken  into  the  sj^stem. 

Protein. — Nitrogen  compounds  that  are  used  in  producing 
and  maintaining  the  lean  meat  or  muscle  tissue  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  the  bone  tissue  of  the  body.  Bones  also  contain  con- 
siderable ash  or  mineral  matter. 

Crude  Protein. — Total  nitrogen  compounds  (NX6M)  or 
what  is  frequently  called  protein.  This  includes  the  true  pro- 
tein and  the  non-protein.  The  latter  cannot  be  used  by  the 
animal  as  a  substitute  for  protein. 

Factor  of  Waste. — When  a  pig  is  fed  more  than  a  certain 
quantity  of  nutrients,  especially  protein,  it  does  not  use  the 
excess  as  economically  in  producing  gains  in  Hve  weight.  The 
portion  lost  on  account  of  this  less  economical  use  is  what  is 
here  termed  the  factor  of  waste.  An  animal  given  too  much 
protein  establishes  a  more  or  less  permanent  habit  of  waste. 

Feeding  Standard.— A  feeding  standard  is  a  statement  of 
the  quantities  of  the  various  digestible  nutrients  necessary  for 
the  development  and  maintenance  of  an  animal.  As  the  term 
is  used  in  this  volume,  it  includes  water  and  mineral  matter. 

NATURE    OF   SWINE-FEEDING   PROBLEM 

Swine  feeding  is  a  process  of  construction  and  maintenance. 
As  far  as  construction  is  concerned  it  is  similar  to  the  building 
of  a  house.  Certain  amounts  of  different  kinds  of  material  are 
necessary.  The  amounts  of  these  vary  considerablj^,  being 
large  in  some  cases  and  small  in  others,  but  the  materials  that 
are  present  in  small  amounts  are  just  as  important  as  those  that 
are  present  in  large  amounts.  So  it  is  witb  a  hog  and  with 
other  animals. 

During  the  growing  period  of  an  animal  both  construction 
and  maintenance  are  required.  As  soon  as  a  given  amount  of 
body  weight  has  been  produced  it  has  to  be  maintained  and  an 
additional  amount  is  being  produced  at  all  times  during  the 
growing  period.  For  the  best  results  material  must  be 
brought  in  that  can  be  used  by  an  animal  in  the  building  proc- 
ess. An  animal  must  make  bone,  lean  meat  or  protein  tissue, 
and  fat  meat  or  non-nitrogenous  tissue. 

It  is  true  that  an  animal  can  substitute  to  some  extent  and 


234  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

use  different  nutrients  or  materials  for  different  purposes,  but 
this  substitution  is  by  no  means  unlimited.  An  animal  cannot 
use  anything  else  in  place  of  protein,  mineral  matter,  or  water. 
The  substitution,  therefore,  applies  only  to  carbohydrates  and 
fat,  and,  as  seen  by  the  writer,  this  is  only  applicable  to  the  use 
of  these  materials  after  they  are  digested,  absorbed  from  the 
digestive  tract,  and  taken  into  the  circulation.  Since  these 
two  different  materials  are  handled  in  the  processes  of  digestion 
and  absorption  by  entirely  different  parts  of  the  mechanism  in 
the  body,  it  is  clear  that  best  results  can  be  obtained  only  if  the 
proper  amount  of  each  is  being  fed. 

The  animal  body  as  a  whole,  therefore,  in  the  use  of  its  food 
materials  is  somewhat  similar  to  an  imaginary  threshing 
machine  that  would  be  made  to  thresh  oats,  wheat,  beans  and 
clover  seed  all  at  the  same  time.  If  the  largest  amount  of  work 
is  to  be  done  by  such  a  machine  it  must  be  fed  to  the  fullest 
extent  in  all  parts.  That  is,  if  only  beans  and  wheat  are  being 
threshed  and  the  oats  and  clover  seed  parts  of  the  machine  are 
allowed  to  run  empty,  maximum  results  will  not  be  obtained. 
The  parts  of  the  mechanism  of  the  animal  body  that  are  not 
in  use  apparently  also  seem  gradually  to  lose  their  powers  and 
later  in  life  are  not  able  to  do  the  required  amount  of  work. 

During  the  growing  period  an  animal  is  necessarily  develop- 
ing a  considerable  amount  of  protein  material  in  the  form  of 
muscles  as  well  as  in  the  bones  and  other  tissues.  The  bones, 
however,  are  largely  (two-thirds,  in  the  mature  animal) 
composed  of  mineral  matter,  therefore,  a  large  quantity  of 
material  that  can  be  used  for  this  purpose  must  also  be 
supplied. 

After  the  structure  is  once  made  and  the  animal  has  attained 
its  full  growth  a  given  amount  of  material  is  always  necessary 
for  maintenance.  That  is,  the  animal  body  is  a  living  machine 
and  is  constantly  using  up  material.  For  this  purpose  a  small 
quantity  of  protein  is  absolutely  necessary.  More,  of  course, 
can  be  used,  but  a  minimum  requirement  of  protein  supple- 
mented with  carbohydrates  and  fat  with  water,  is  more  eco- 
nomical. In  these  respects  the  animal  body  as  a  machine  is 
quite  dissimilar  from  a  mechanical  machine.  As  soon  as  a 
piece  of  work  is  done  an  engine  will  not  use  any  fuel  for  main- 


SCIENTTFK^    SWINE    FEEDING  235 

tenance.  The  animal  body  uses  material  not  only  while  it  is 
tioing  actual  work- — putting  on  gains  in  live  weight  or  doing 
labor  of  various  kinds,  but  for  maintenance  at  all  times. 

This  being  true,  it  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  quicker  a 
pig  can  be  brought  up  to  a  desirable  market  weight,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  less  feed  will  be  used  for  maintenance 
and  the  more  economical  will  be  the  gains  made.  Further- 
more, as  an  animal  gets  older  it  gradually  loses  its  power  to 
eat  and  digest  large  quantities  of  feed,  consequently  the  factor 
of  maintenance  becomes  a  gradually  more  important  factor  as 
the  animal  grows. 

MINERAL  MATTER 

A  pig  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  mineral  matter,  wood 
ashes,  for  example.  In  an  animal  this  material  is  used  for  two 
purposes,  for  bone  construction  and  for  the  general  metabolism 
or  working  of  the  machine,  as  for  instance,  digestion,  absorp- 
tion, circulation,  etc. 

Those  mineral  substances  that  are  gritty,  or  those  that  have 
very  sharp  edges  and  corners,  assist  in  destroying  worms  in  the 
digestive  tract.  Since  mineral  matter  is  used  very  largely  in 
bone  construction,  it  is  clear  that  a  pig  during  the  growing 
period  should  have  more  of  this  material  than  after  maturity. 
During  the  latter  time  only  enough  is  necessary  for  mainte- 
nance or  that  which  is  used  in  the  general  metabolism  or  work 
of  the  animal  machine. 

Sources  of  Mineral  Matter. — Practically  all  feeds  contain 
some  mineral  matter  but  the  amount  present  in  different  feeds 
varies  greatly.  Other  sources  of  mineral  matter  for  swine  are 
the  soil  itself  and  the  materials  pigs  are  able  to  get  when  they 
roam  about  on  pastures.  Pigs  may  eat  some  of  the  soil  which 
supplies  various  mineral  substances.  They  may  eat  pebbles, 
stones,  insects,  weeds,  herbs,  etc.,  all  of  which  may  supply  an 
abundance  and  a  great  variety  of  mineral  matter.  This  being 
true,  it  is  much  more  important  to  look  after  the  mineral 
supply  of  pigs  in  winter  than  it  is  in  summer.  If  pigs  are  kept 
in  close  confinement  the  mineral  ingredients  must  be  very 
carefully  supplied. 


236  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

Importance  of  Mineral  Matter. — The  absolute  amount  of 
mineral  matter  necessary  is  not  very  great,  nevertheless,  as 
previously  stated,  the  importance  of  it  is  just  as  great  as  that 
of  any  other  of  the  food  nutrients. 

Babcock  of  Wisconsin  has  shown  that  a  well-grown  animal, 
as  for  instance  a  cow,  can  live  and  do  its  work  fairly  well  for  a 
period  of  six  months  without  any  mineral  ingredients  at  all  in  its 
ration.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  however,  the  animal  will 
suffer  greatly,  apparently  ''go  to  pieces"  very  suddenly,  and 
will  recover  just  as  quickly  when  the  missing  material  is  again 
supplied. 

Young  and  growing  pigs,  if  given  rations  deficient  in  mineral 
ingredients  or  in  other  necessary  substances,  will  very  soon 
show  marked  evil  effects.  Mineral  ingredients  are  among  the 
most  important  in  a  ration  for  swine. 

Swine  should  at  all  times,  therefore,  have  free  access  to  salt, 
charcoal,  ground  limestone,  bone  meal  and  hardwood  ashes. 
If  the  latter  are  not  available  small  quantities  of  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  concentrated  lye  fed  in  the  slop  will  be  found  helpful. 

PROTEIN 

An  animal  may  be  fed  as  much  as  it  will  eat  of  all  other 
nutrients  but  if  protein  be  omitted  from  the  ration,  it  will  die, 
even  with  a  full  stomach.  Examples  of  protein  material  are 
white  of  egg  and  lean  meat.  Protein  as  well  as  mineral  matter 
is  used  in  much  larger  quantities  during  the  growing  period 
than  after  maturity,  when  only  enough  is  necessarj^  for  main- 
tenance. Protein  is  used  by  the  animal  body  for  the  develop- 
ment and  maintenance  of  protein  tissue — lean  meat,  part  of 
the  bone,  glands,  blood,  hide,  horns  and  hoof. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  mature  animal  can  use  protein 
material  for  other  purposes  it  cannot  do  this  as  economically 
for  energy,  heat  and  fat  production  as  it  can  use  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  This  ])eing  true,  the  amount  of  protein  fed  to  swine 
should  be  limited  in  accordance  with  the  ability  of  the  animal 
to  use  it  for  the  proper  purpose.  A  pig  has  greater  powers  of 
consumption  and  digestion,  especially  of  protein  and  also 
other  nutrients,  than  it  has  powers  to  use  these  materials  after 
they  are  digested  and  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract. 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  237 

Since  the  pig  can  eat  and  digest  more  protein  and  under 
certain  conditions  more  of  the  other  nutrients  than  can  be  used 
to  the  best  advantage  in  the  body  tissue  and  elsewhere,  there 
is  created  what  the  author  calls  the  ''factor  of  waste  in  animal 
metabolism."  When  the  habit  of  waste  has  once  been  formed 
it  seems  to  persist.  This  being  true,  it  is  a  matter  of  consider- 
able importance  that  the  pig  should  not  be  overfed  on  protein 
or  not  be  fed  more  than  it  can  use  for  construction  and 
maintenance. 

»  Factor  of  Waste  Illustrated. — To  illustrate  protein  metabo- 
lism as  it  applies  to  the  factor  of  waste,  suppose  that  a  j^oung 
man  from  the  country,  with  economical  habits,  goes  to  the 
cit}^  to  take  up  his  life  work,  receiving  a  salary  at  first  of  $50 
a  month.  He  may  be  able  to  live  on  about  half  of  this  or  $25 
a  month,  spending  about  $15  per  month  for  room  and  board 
and  $10  a  month  for  clothes  and  incidentals.  This  will  allow 
him  to  ''lay  by"  $25  a  month  in  a  bank.  As  time  progresses 
and  the  young  man  becomes  acquainted  with  others,  he  will 
gradually  take  up  the  mode  of  living  of  his  associates,  will  go 
into  more  and  better  society,  wear  better  clothes,  board  at  a 
more  expensive  place,  live  in  a  better  room,  and  spend  more 
for  transportation  in  going  to  and  from  his  work,  etc.  This 
will  increase  his  living  expenses  so  that  the  $25  a  month  set 
aside  at  the  beginning  will  be  cut  down.  Before  very  long 
the  total  receipts  from  his  salary  will  equal  his  total  expendi- 
tures, which  will  result  in  zero  as  far  as  increasing  his  bank 
account  is  concerned.  In  order  now  further  to  increase  his 
bank  account,  his  salary  must  be  raised,  say  to  $75  a  month. 
This,  for  the  time  being,  will  again  allow  him  to  set  aside  $25 
a  month,  but  with  time  his  expenses  will  increase  also,  so  that 
before  many  months  he  will  again  have  established  an  equi- 
librium between  his  income  and  expenditures.  In  order  to 
allow  a  further  increase  in  his  bank  account  his  salary  must 
again  be  increased  to,  say  $100  per  month.  This  process  may 
go  on  indefinitely.  This  illustrates  the  tendency  in  the  animal 
body,  under  prevailing  conditions  of  feeding  toward  nitrogen 
equilibrium. 

If  a  pig  requires  0.1  pound  of  protein  a  day  for  every  100 
pounds  of  live  weight  to  supply  its  normal  protein  metabolism 


238  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

and  is  getting  0.5  pound  in  its  ration,  it  will  be  able  to  store  up 
in  its  body  0.4  pound  provided  there  is  no  waste.  However, 
on  account  of  the  tendency  of  the  animal  body  to  establish 
nitrogen  equilibrium,  this  0.4  pound  that  at  first  was  used  to 
increase  the  store  of  protein  and  thereby  add  to  the  live  weight 
will  gradually  decrease.  After  feeding  0.5  pound  for  some  time 
there  will  be  a  tendency  to  establish  nitrogen  equilibrium  so 
that  the  animal  body  will  be  excreting  more  and  storing  less 
protein  in  its  body.  In  order  further  to  increase  the  store  of 
protein  of  the  body,  it  will  be  necessary  to  increase  the  amount 
fed. 

Suppose  now  that  the  pig  has  come  to  a  point  of  nitrogen 
equilibrium  by  eating  0.7  pound  of  protein  for  every  100 
pounds  live  weight  daily.  As  it  gets  older  the  pig  normally 
eats  a  smaller  quantity  of  feed  per  100  pounds  live  weight  daily, 
which  naturally  also  decreases  the  protein  supply.  In  order  to 
show  what  will  take  place  under  these  conditions,  the  ilus- 
tration  above  mentioned  will  again  be  taken  up  at  the  pointl  at 
which  it  was  left.  Grant  that  the  young  man  has  come  to  a 
monetary  equilibrium  when  he  is  receiving  a  salary  of  $100  a 
month.  If  now  his  salary  is  cut  down  to  $75  per  month,  what 
will  take  place?  Having  become  accustomed  to  living  at  the 
rate  of  $100  a  month,  he  will  on  his  reduced  salary,  at  least  for 
some  time,  draw  on  his  bank  account  to  supply  the  deficiency. 
But  knowing  that  his  bank  account  under  these  conditions  will 
eventually  disappear,  he  may  gradually  accustom  himself  to 
living  less  extravagantly,  finally  reaching  an  equilibrium  at 
$75  a  month.  This  then  will  reduce  the  factor  that  is  drawing 
upon  his  bank  account,  and  if  he  is  of  an  economical  disposition 
he  will  reduce  his  living  to  a  little  less  than  $75  a  month,  again 
enabling  him  to  add  to  his  store  in  the  bank.  The  amount  he 
can  save,  however,  will  not  be  so  great  as  it  was  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  period  when  his  salary  was  increased  from  $50  to 
$75  a  month.  This  is  true  because  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
reduce  the  expense  of  living  to  the  point  at  which  it  was  before 
extravagant  habits  were  formed.  If  now,  his  salary  is  reduced 
to  $50  a  month,  or  to  the  point  at  which  he  started,  the  same 
process  of  drawing  on  his  bank  account  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency will  be  repeated,  and  it  will  be  with  very  great  difficulty 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  239 

that  he  will  return  to  his  former  basis  and  be  able  to  lay  up  any 
of  his  salary  at  all.  The  same  thing  apparently  takes  place  in 
the  protein  metabolism  of  the  pig. 

The  pig  being  accustomed  to  metabolize  for  maintenance 
and  waste  0.7  pound  of  protein  a  day  will,  for  a  time,  when  the 
supply  is  reduced,  use  more  for  these  purposes  than  is  received, 
consequently  will  reduce  its  store  of  protein  tissue  in  the  body. 
However,  after  being  fed  a  reduced  ration  for  some  time,  the 
factor  of  waste  will  gradually  be  reduced,  the  pig  again  reach- 
ing a  point  of  nitrogen  equilibrium.  This  may  be  continued, 
but  under  normal  conditions  it  will  never  be  possible  to  bring 
the  pig  back  to  a  point  where  it  will  be  able  to  use  for  making 
protein  tissue  as  much  of  the  protein  of  its  food  as  it  was  able 
to  use  before  it  was  fed  the  maximum  quantity. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  influence  of  high  protein  feed- 
ing will,  under  normal  conditions,  continue  in  the  metabolism 
of  the  pig  indefinitely  and  that  the  factor  of  waste  is  re- 
duced with  very  great  difficulty.  Consequently,  a  pig  after 
having  once  been  fed  an  excess  of  protein,  is  not  as  economical 
a  meat  producer  as  it  was  before.  Only  an  extended  period  of 
feeding  on  a  materially  smaller  quantity  of  feed  and  especially 
protein  will  improve  but  not  restore  it  to  the  original  basis. 

The  amount  of  protein  that  is  necessary  in  developing  pigs 
is  as  follows: 

For  Market  Pigs. — The  following  figure  applies  to  market 
pigs  that  are  started  at  two  months  of  age  and  are  to  be  finished 
when  eight  months  old.  It  shows  the  amount  of  digestible 
crude  protein  required  by  the  pigs  daily  for  every  100  pounds 
live  weight,  according  to  the  data  determined,  for  maximum 
and  most  economical  production. 

In  this  as  well  as  in  succeeding  figures  the  vertical  spaces 
indicated  by  the  top  row  of  numerals  represent  weeks.  The 
second  line  of  figures  gives  the  age  of  the  pigs  by  months.  The 
left  hand  or  beginning  space  represents  two  months  of  age  and 
the  right  or  close,  eight  months.  The  horizontal  spaces  indi- 
cated by  the  numerals  at  the  left  refer  to  crude  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, ether  extract,  and  water.  These  numerals  represent 
the  amounts  in  pounds  that  are  to  be  fed  every  day  for  every 
100  pounds  of  live  weight.  In  each  case  the  amount  is  calcu- 
lated upward  from  the  base  fine. 


240 


L1\'E^ST()('K    OX    TIJK    FAHM 


The  curve  for  protein  above  starts  at  0.6  pound  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  experiment  and  rises  to  0,7  during  the  first 
seven  weeks.  Following  this  it  declines  to  0.6  during  four 
weeks;  then  maintains  a  level  of  0.65  for  seven  weeks.  After 
this  the  greater  part  of  the  nitrogenous  feeds  are  removed 
from  the  ration  during  four  weeks.  A  little  of  some  protein 
feed,  however,  is  fed  to  the  close  as  pigs  will  do  better  if  they 
have  more  protein  than  is  found  in  corn. 

The  form  that  this  curve  takes,  however,  should  not  be 
taken  as  absolute  but  should  be  modified  to  suit  the  length  of 
the  feeding  period.     The  writer  feeds  pigs  for  six  months,  from 


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Fig.  62. — Protein  requirement  of  market  pigf=. 

three  to  eight  months  of  age  inclusive,  according  to  this  for- 
mula. Thus  the  pig  is  eight  months  old  at  the  close  of  the  feed- 
ing period.  The  last  eight  weeks  is  considered  as  the  fattening 
period  and  the  first  eighteen  weeks  the  growing  period.  This 
growing  period  is  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  period  of  four 
weeks  during  which  the  protein  curve  drops  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  the  factor  of  waste.  With  a  short  growing  period 
a  continuous  increase  during  the  period  would  be  all  right  but 
when  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  protein  is  fed  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  under  practical  conditions  the  fac- 
tor of  waste  apparently  becomes  so  great  that  feeding  becomes 
relatively  more  unprofitable. 

For  Breeding  Pigs. — In  order  to  develop  pigs  to  the  best 
advantage  for  breeding  purposes  the  following  guide  should  be 
used. 

The  same  comments  apply  to  this  curve  as  to  the  one  pre- 
ceding. The  difference  as  will  be  seen  is  that  pigs  being  devel- 
oped for  breeding  purposes  should  have  less  protein  than  those 
that  are  fed  for  market. 

The  amount  given  as  best  for  the  development  of  market 
pigs  to  produce  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains  up  to 


S<'IENTIFl('    SWINK    FEEDlNc; 


241 


(Mght  months  of  age  seems  to  develop  in  the  pig  a  factor  of 
waste  which  since  it  is  more  or  less  permanent  becomes  a 
hindrance  to  a  pig  that  is  being  grown  and  developed  for  breed- 
ing purposes,  because  it  checks  its  growth,  brings  it  to  early 
maturity,  makes  the  pig  a  less  econom.ical  feeder  later,  and 
seems  also  to  produce  a  tendency  in  the  pig  to  transmit  to  its 
offspring  the  same  characteristics. 

In  a  certain  experiment,  a  bunch  of  pigs  fed  a  ration  of  corn 
and  water  in  a  dry  lot  attained  a  live  weight  of  approximately 
80  pounds  at  eight  months  of  age.  This  was  owing  to  a  de- 
ficiency of  both  protein  and  mineral  matter.     In  another  ex- 


1     i    i     WifcKs  - 

rxTTT  11  -mrnTTT  le  n  \%  ^yjo^igv?  ^^  ^^  '^^  '^\ 

^^             '    _::::_:_j-- 

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ic 

:  _  -^i  -      _     : 

^_ --;-- 

Fig.  6.3. — Protein  requirement  of  breeding  pigs. 


periment  where  mineral  matter  was  supplied  in  the  form  of 
charcoal,  salt,  air-slacked  lime,  bone  meal,  and  hard  wood 
ashes,  the  pigs  attained  a  live  weight  of  140  pounds.  Pigs 
that  were  fed  a  balanced  ration  attained  a  weight  of  290  pounds 
at  eight  months  of  age.  Still  another  bunch,  fed  exactly  as 
those  mentioned  just  preceding,  except  that  they  received  more 
protein,  made  only  170  pounds  of  total  live  weight  at  the  same 
age.     They  had  an  excess  of  protein. 

Illustration.— To  illustrate  further:  Suppose  a  field  of  wheat 
in  the  shock  is  to  be  threshed  with  a  steam  thresher  and  sheaves 
of  wheat  are  to  be  used  with  which  to  fire  the  engine.  The 
wheat  used  in  the  engine  for  fuel  represents  the  feed  used  by 
the  pig  for  maintenance  and  energy  for  digesting  and  assimi- 
lating its  feed  and  for  excreting  w^aste  products.  The  grain 
that  goes  into  the  sack  represents  the  gains  made;  the  grain 
that  blows  over,  the  waste;  and  the  straw,  the  feces.  When 
the  machine  is  run  empty  the  wheat  used  as  fuel  in  the  engine 
represents  the  actual  quantity  of  feed  used  for  maintenance. 


16 


242  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

The  factor  of  waste  is  absent  under  such  conditions.  As  grain 
is  fed  into  the  machine,  more  fuel  is  required  in  the  engine; 
some  to  handle  the  material  that  is  being  fed  into  the  separa- 
tor, some  to  run  the  machine  itself. 

When  grain  is  fed  into  the  separator  only  in  normal  quan- 
tities, the  effectiveness  of  the  machine  is  greatest;  that  is, 
under  these  conditions,  more  of  the  grain  is  saved.  As  the 
machine  is  crowded  toward  the  limit  of  its  capacity,  more 
grain  is  left  in  the  straw,  and  more  passes  across  the  sieve  be- 
cause a  larger  part  of  the  sieve  becomes  clogged,  allowing  a 
smaller  quantity  of  grain  to  pass  through  into  the  sack  or 
wagon.  More  grain  is  also  required  to  furnish  the  necessary 
fuel  in  the  engine.  When  the  amount  of  grain  fed  into  the 
separator  is  again  reduced,  the  machine  gradually  becomes 
more  effective;  that  is,  as  a  smaller  amount  of  grain  is  fed  into 
the  separator,  less  fuel  is  required  in  the  engine,  more  grain 
is  threshed  out  of  the  straw,  and  more  of  the  material  that  has 
clogged  the  sieve  is  saved.  But  it  takes  time  for  all  of  the 
material  that  has  become  lodged  in  the  meshes  of  the  sieve  to 
shake  out  so  as  to  allow  the  machine  to  become  as  effective  as 
it  was  at  the  beginning.  A  thresher  is  more  effective  when  not 
crowded  to  its  fullest  capacity,  and  it  is  also  more  effective 
when  the  moderate  quantity  thus  handled  is  approached  from 
below  rather  than  from  above.  In  pig  feeding,  however,  the 
factor  of  waste  apparently  can  never  be  entirel}^  eliminated 
when  once  established,  as  in  the  thresher. 

Sources  of  Protein. — The  sources  of  protein  on  the  farm  for 
swine  feeding  are  alfalfa,  clover,  milk,  soy  beans,  peas,  oil  meal 
and  tankage.  The  latter  two  are  commercial  feeds  and  while 
they  are  good  and  profitable  at  moderate  prices,  they  should  not 
be  resorted  to  except  when  home-grown  feeds  are  not  available. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  roughages  and  furnish  both  protein 
and  bulk.  This  in  itself  is  a  very  important  consideration  be- 
cause a  ration  containing  some  bulk  is  better  than  a  ration 
made  up  entirely  of  concentrates.  Bulky  feeds  make  it  im- 
possible for  the  young  and  rapidly  growing  pig  to  get  sufficient 
protein  therefrom  for  maximum  and  most  economical  growth. 
On  this  account  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  the  ration  some  pro- 
tein in  the  form  of  a  concentrate  or  of  the  other  nitrogenous 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  243 

feeds  mentioned.  The  pig  that  is  fed  corn,  for  instance,  on  a 
clover  pasture  will  make  fairly  large  and  economical  gains  but 
such  a  ration  can  be  materially  improved  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  of  some  nitrogenous  concentrate. 

Distribution  of  Protein. — Another  factor  of  considera'ole 
importance  in  considering  the  ration  for  swine  is  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  protein  feeds.  Every  pig  must  get  its 
share.  Furthermore,  a  herd  should  be  made  up  according  to 
the  age  and  size  of  the  pigs  and  should  be  fed  accordingly. 

Where  a  bunch  of  eight  or  ten  pigs  are  fed  out  of  a  common 
trough,  the  most  rapid  eaters  get  the  most  feed,  consequently 
too  much;  the  slower  eaters  do  not  get  enough.  Moreover,  the 
pigs  that  are  eating  an  excess  gradually  become  ''filled  up" 
so  that  they  lose  their  appetite  and  then  go  "off  feed.'^  When 
they  do  this,  they  eat  less,  leaving  the  rest  for  those  that  eat 
slowly  and  in  turn  these  get  too  much.  The  result  is  that  all 
the  pigs  in  the  lot,  even  though  the  entire  bunch  is  fed  the 
proper  quantity,  will  get  an  excess  of  protein  at  some  time 
which  will  result  in  a  high  factor  of  waste  and  in  a  smaller 
live- weight  gain.  This  difficulty  is  increased  to  the  maximum 
when  the  feed  or  feeds  furnishing  the  greater  part  of  the  pro- 
tein are  fed  separately  and  in  a  concentrated  form.  The  larger 
the  number  of  pigs  that  are  fed  together,  the  greater  also  the 
difficulty  of  getting  a  proper  distribution  of  the  feed.  This 
difficulty  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  a  practical  way,  when  all 
the  feeds  of  the  ration  are  ground  into  a  fine  meal  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water,  and  when 
pigs  of  equal  size  and  condition  of  health  are  fed  together. 
In  such  case  all  the  pigs  in  the  bunch  come  to  the  feed  at  the 
same  time. 

It  has  been  found  that  by  feeding  pigs  in  individual  stalls 
and  weighing  the  feed  for  each  pig  separately  larger  gains  can 
be  produced  during  the  growing  period.  The  explanation  of 
this  is  that  when  pigs  are  fed  in  individual  stalls  each  pig  gets 
its  requisite  amount  of  nutrients,  protein  especially.  The 
practicability  of  this  manner  of  feeding,  however,  has  not  yet 
been  determined. 

When  changes  of  more  than  a  very  minor  nature  are  to  be 
made  in  rations  and  especially  in  the  protein  of  the  ration 


244 


LIVESTOCK    OX    THE    FARM 


they  should  be  made  gradually,  both  in  the  feeds  used  and  in 
the  total  quantity  of  the  digestible  nutrients  contained  therein. 
It  takes  time  for  a  pig  to  become  accustomed  to  changes  so 
that  it  will  eat,  digest  and  assimilate  the  new  ration  as  well  as 
the  old  one,  hence  the  more  gradually  such  changes  are  made 
the  better  will  be  the  results  produced. 

Protein  for  the  Breeding  Herd.— It  is  well  known  that  hogs 
older  than  those  just  referred  to  need  much  less  protein.  Good 
results  have  been  obtained  by  feeding  niature  hogs  0.20  and 
0.25  pound  daily  of  digestible  crude  protein  for  every  100 
pounds  of  live  weight,  and  those  ranging  from  two  years  down 
to  eight  months  of  age  from  0.25  to  0.35  pound.  It  does  not 
seem  to  be  necessary  to  feed  much  more  during  a  period  of 
gestation  than  at  other  times. 

CARBOHYDRATE 

In  point  of  quantity  the  carbohydrate  part  of  the  ration  is 
the   most   important.     It    comprises    anywhere   from    three- 


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Fig.  64. — Carbohydrate  requirement  of  market  pigs. 

fourths  to  nine-tenths  of  the  dry  matter  part  of  the  ration. 
Carbohydrates  are  used  in  the  animal  body  for  the  produc- 
tion of  energy,  heat  and  fat.  The  amount  needed  by  swine 
of  the  different  ages  depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  fed. 

For  Market  Pigs. — The  pig  that  is  being  grown  and  fattened 
for  market  to  be  finished  at  eight  months  of  age  requires  the 
following  amount. 

The  foregoing  figure  shows  the  amount  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates required  by  a  pig  daily  for  every  100  pounds  of  live 
weight.  It  will  be  noticed  that  starting  with  the  pig  at  two 
months  of  age,  when  usually  weaned,  the  amount  should  be 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINK     FKEDINCJ 


24i 


2.4  pounds  of  digestible  carbohj^drates  daily  for  every  100 
pounds  of  live  weight.  After  this  as  indicated  by  the  line  the 
amount  is  gradually  increased  during  the  following  eighteen 
weeks  when  the  amount  is  2.8  pounds.  The  carbohydrate 
line,  as  given,  was  most  definitely  worked  out  for  the  first 
eighteen  weeks  of  the  feeding  period.  During  the  last  eight 
weeks  the  pigs  are  as  a  rule  put  on  nearly  full  feed  on  a  ration 
that  is  primarily  carbohydrate  feeds. 

If  pigs  do  not  get  enough  exercise  or  are  reduced  in  vitality 
by  inheritance  or  improper  feeding  they  will  not  be  able  to  take 
the  above-specified  quantity  of  carbohydrate  and  should  be  fed 
less. 

For  Breeding  Pigs. — The  pig  that  is  being  grown  for  breed- 
ing purposes  needs  a  smaller  amount  as  shown  in  the  following 
figure. 


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Fig.  65. — Carbohydrate  requirement  of  breeding  pigs. 

It  is  seen  from  this  that  the  breeding  pig  gets  somewhat  less 
carbohydrate  than  the  market  pig.  While  a  breeding  pig 
should  be  in  thrifty  vigorous  condition  and  carry  considerable 
fat  it  need  not  be  so  fat  as  a  market  hog. 

Perhaps  the  best  guide  as  to  the  amount  of  carbohydrates 
for  mature  hogs  is  the  condition  in  which  it  is  desired  to  keep 
them.  A  brood  sow,  for  instance,  that  has  been  much  suckled 
down  can  use  a  considerable  quantity  of  this  material  until  she 
has  reached  a  proper  state  of  fatness.  After  this  the  quantity 
must  be  reduced  so  as  to  prevent  her  becoming  too  fat. 

Neither  a  growing  pig,  a  fattening  hog,  nor  a  mature  hog 
should  ever  be  put  on  full  feed.  A  pig  should  always  leave 
the  trough  with  an  appetite  for  more. 

A  sufficient  number  of  feeds  should  be  used  in  the  ration  to 
furnish  variety.     While  a  balanced  ration  could  be  made  up, 


246 


LIVESTOCK   ON   THE   FARM 


SO  far  as  protein  and  carbohydrates  are  concerned,  by  using 
simply  corn  and  soy  beans  or  any  other  nitrogenous  concen- 
trate, the  ration  is  better  if  it  contains  three  or  four  feeds  in- 
stead of  only  two.  Still  more  feeds  is  presumed  to  make  the 
ration  still  better.  The  greater  the  number  of  feeds  in  a  ration 
the  greater  will  be  the  probability  of  supplying  what  the  pig 
needs. 

ETHER  EXTRACT  OR  FAT 

Fat  or  ether  extract  is  used,  after  it  has  been  digested  and 
absorbed,  for  practically  the  same  purposes  as  carbohydrate. 
Nevertheless,  to  get  the  best  results,  it  is  necessary  to  supply 
ether  extract  or  fat  in  the  ration  to  the  extent  that  the  animal 
is  able  to  take  care  of  it.  In  a  general  way,  a  pig  can  use  about 
one-tenth  as  much  of  fat  as  it  can  of  carbohydrate. 


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Fig.  66. — Ether  extract  requirement  of  pigs. 

While  all  normal  farm  feeds  for  swine  contain  some  fat, 
rations  in  general  do  not  contain  enough  of  this  substance. 
The  soy  bean,  which  has  already  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  protein,  is  also  rich  in  ether  extract  or  fat,  consequently 
serves  a  double  purpose  in  a  ration.  This  being  true,  it  is  a 
very  valuable  feed.  If  feeds  are  available  for  the  control  of 
this  part  of  the  ration  the  above  chart  will  serve  as  a  guide. 

This  curve  has  not  as  yet  been  so  thoroughly  established  as 
the  others  shown  but  is  believed  to  be  approximately  correct. 


WATER 


About  half  of  the  weight  of  the  body  of  a  pig  is  water. 
Water  is  used  also  in  digestion  and  in  metabolism.  It  has 
been  clearly  shown  that  a  given  definite  amount  of  water  will 
produce  largest  and  most  economical  gains  for  marketing  and 
is  best  for  breeding.     It  has   further   been  shown  that  the 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING 


247 


appetite  of  a  pig  for  water  is  not  a  safe  guide  as  to  the  amount 
of  water  that  is  necessary.  If  a  pig  has  free  access  to  water  and 
is  given  dry  feed  or  a  thick  slop,  it  will  not  drink  water  enough  in 
winter.  In  the  hot  days  of  summer  in  a  warm  climate  when  a 
pig  is  kept  in  a  lot  that  does  not  have  very  much  shade  it  will 
drink  too  much.  Either  condition  will  prevent  a  pig  from 
making  the  largest  and  most  economical  gains.  The  winter 
problem,  however,  is  by  far  the  more  important  of  the  two. 
It  has,  therefore,  become  necessary  to  feed  a  certain  definite 


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Fig.  67. — Water  requirement  of  market  pigs. 


quantity  of  water  in  accordance  with  the  age  of  the  animal  and 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  being  developed. 

For  Market  Pigs. — The  amount  of  water  necessary  for  the 
growing  and  fattening  pig  that  is  started  at  two  months  of  age 
and  finished  for  market  at  eight  months  is  given  in  the  following: 
The  pig  for  market  should  have  13  pounds  of  water  daily  for 
every  100  pounds  of  live  weight  at  two  months.  This  is 
gradually  reduced  during  the  following  three  and  one-half 
months  or  sixteen  weeks  to  10  pounds.  Following  this  it  is 
reduced  at  a  more  rapid  rate  to  5  pounds  at  eight  months  of 
age.  At  this  time  the  pig  should  be  in  prime  condition  for 
market. 

For  Breeding  Pigs. — Pigs  intended  for  breeding  purposes  are 
not  fed  to  carry  so  much  fat  as  those  that  are  fed  for  market. 
Consequently  they  require  more  water.  The  amount  neces- 
sary from  available  data  at  present  is  shown  in  the  following: 

In  this  chart  the  curve  starts  at  the  same  point  as  in  the  one 


248 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


before  but  instead  of  being  reduced  to  5  pounds  is  reduced  to 
only  about  9  pounds. 

Mature  hogs  used  for  breeding  have  been  worked  with  in 
practice  in  a  general  way  and  as  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able 
to  observe  need  approximately  from  8  to  10  pounds  of  water 
daily  for  every  100  pounds  of  live  weight. 


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Fig.  68. — Water  requirement  of  breeding  pigs. 


EXERCISE 

Exercise  is  very  important  in  the  swine-growing  industry. 
This  is  especially  true  with  young  and  growing  pigs  and  with 
those  that  are  being  developed  and  used  for  breeding  purposes. 
It  should  begin  at  a  very  early  age. 

The  sow  with  her  litter  may  be  kept  in  a  comparatively 
small  pen  until  the  pigs  are  about  two  weeks  old.  At  this 
time  they  should  get  out  where  they  can  have  range.  If 
they  do  not  take  exercise  of  themselves,  they  must  be  com- 
pelled to  take  it,  though  exercise  is  not  so  important  for  pigs 
being  fattened  for  the  market.  If  a  pig  has  been  properly 
born  and  handled  up  to  weaning  time  it  can  be  put  into  a 
comparatively  small  pen  and  be  finished  for  market  without 
difficulty.  If,  however,  this  plan  is  followed  for  several  genera- 
tions, a  breeding  herd  is  made  practically  useless  for  pork- 
production  purposes.  A  long  series  of  experiments  has  shown 
this. 

BULK  IN  RATION 

By  feeding  pigs  a  bulky  ration  during  the  early  part  of 
their  life  when  their  capacity  for  eating  feed  is  greater  than 
their  ability  to  utilize  the  digested  material,  the  appetite  may 
be  satisfied,  the  digestible  nutrients  held  down  to  a  proper 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  249 

point  and  the  capacity  for  feed  largely  retained.  These  are 
important  considerations  because  later  in  life  pigs  naturally 
eat  a  smaller  quantity  for  every  100  pounds  of  live  weight  and 
less  than  they  might  utilize.  The  substitution  of  concen- 
trated for  bulky  feeds  later  in  the  life  of  the  market  hog  is, 
therefore,  advised. 

Furthermore,  by  the  introduction  of  a  roughage,  diges- 
tion is  somewhat  retarded,  making  a  smaller  excess  of  digestible 
nutrients  available  at  any  given  time.  This  limits  the  factor 
of  waste  and  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  ration,  making 
possible  larger  and  more  economical  gains.  The  amount 
of  roughage  fed  may  easily  be  overdone,  as  a  pig  has  only  one 
small  stomach  and  cannot  be  expected  to  obtain  more  than  a 
part  of  the  nutrients  necessary  for  large  gains  from  feeds  of 
this  character. 

Bulk  in  a  ration  is  a  desirable  factor  during  the  growing 
stage  and  especially  during  the  earlier  part  of  it.  It  is  also  a 
necessary  consideration  for  breeding  hogs.  Clover,  alfalfa 
and  other  green  feeds  are  bulky,  consequently,  in  so  far  as 
bulk  may  be  furnished  by  feeds  of  this  character,  they  answer 
the  purpose  very  well.  For  winter,  finely  chopped  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  also  answer  the  purpose  to  some  extent,  but  these 
have  the  cHsadvantage,  when  fed  in  slop,  of  having  pieces  of 
cut  stems  that  are  more  or  less  sharp  and  may  injure  the  diges- 
tive tract  because  the  pig  does  not  always  masticate  feed  in 
this  form.  To  overcome  this,  clover  and  alfalfa  should  be  fed 
in  a  form  that  they  will  require  their  thorough  mastication. 
This  may  be  done  by  chopping  the  clover  and  alfalfa  as  fine 
as  possible  in  a  fodder  cutter,  wetting  it  with  steam  or  hot  water 
and  mixing  a  little  meal  with  it.  This  mixture  should  be  fed 
before  the  grain  part  of  the  ration  is  given.  If  bran  is  used 
as  a  roughage  it  may  be  mixed  into  the  slop. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FEEDS 

A  few  of  the  most  common  swine  feeds  are  given  herewith. 
The  digestible  nutrients  named  are  from  various  sources. 
Some  are  from  analyses  by  the  Ilhnois  station,  some  from  the 
work  of  Armsby  of  Pennsylvania,  and  some  from  general 
feeding  tables  such  as  are  given  in  ''Feeds  and  Feeding"  by 


250 


LIVESTOCK    ON   THE    FARM 


Henry.  In  these  tables  from  which  this  is  made  up,  however, 
water  and  mineral  matter  are  not  considered  as  digestible 
nutrients,  while  in  the  following  table  they  are  so  considered. 


Carbohydrate  Concentrates 
Dry  Feeds 


Digestible  nutrients  per   100  pounds 


Water 


Crude 

Carbo- 

Ether 

protein 

hydrate 

extract 

7.0 

66.0 

3.0 

8.1 

69.7 

1.3 

8.3 

64.8 

1.6 

8.9 

69.2 

1.7 

8.4 

48.3 

4.2 

7.8 

57.1 

2.7 

4.8 

72.2 

0.3 

9.0 

61.2 

6.2 

7.5 

55.2 

6.8 

Mineral 
matter 


Corn 

Rye 

Barley 

Wheat 

Oats 

Kaffir  corn. .  .  . 

Rice 

Germ  meal. .  .  . 
Hominy  chops, 


13.0 
11.6 
10.9 


10. 
11. 

9. 
12. 

8. 
11. 


1.4 
1.9 
2.6 
1.8 
3.0 
1.5 
0.4 
1.3 
2.5 


Green  Feeds 


Potatoes 

Artichokes 

Sugar  beets.  .  .  . 
Mangel  wurzels. 

Turnips 

Pumpkin  (field) 


78.9 

0.5 

16.4 

0.1 

79.5 

2.0 

16.8 

0.2 

86.5 

1.1 

10.2 

0.1 

90.9 

0.1 

5.7 

0.1 

90.5 

0.2 

6.5 

0.1 

90.9 

1.0 

5.8 

0.3 

1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
0.5 


According  to  the  observations  and  work  of  the  writer  it 
seems  advisable  also  to  classify  water  as  a  nutrient  and  to 
assume,  since  the  pig  requires  more  than  is  present  in  ordinary 
feed  stuffs,  that  the  entire  quantity  is  digestible.  Hence,  in 
the  foregoing  table  the  entire  water  content  is  given  under  the 
head  of  digestible  nutrients.  The  mineral  matter,  included 
in  the  table  under  this  head,  is  also  the  total  ash  content  of  the 
feeds  as  obtained  from  composition  tables. 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING 


251 


Nitrogenous    Concentrates 
Dry  Feeds 


Digestible  nutrients  per  100  pounds 


Crude 

Carbo- 

Ether 

protein 

hydrate 

extract 

9.2 

20.6 

17.1 

29.0 

10.8 

29.6 

22.3 

14.4 

10.5 

18.0 

59.8 

0.6 

14.8 

18.3 

54.2 

1.1 

7.0 

48.0 

12.0 

10.7 

66.2 

0.3 

13.7 

8.5 

52.3 

2.5 

9.2 

27.5 

32.8 

7.1 

10.1 

29.3 

38.7 

2.9 

8.2 

21.6 

43.0 

11.9 

9.8 

13.5 

61.3 

2.0 

12.0 

14.0 

66.0 

2.0 

12.1 

11.4 

54.5 

3.4 

11.8 

12.2 

50.0 

3.8 

13.2 

22.0 

33.4 

5.4 

11.1 

21.1 

33.5 

5.5 

Mineral 
matter 


Flax  seed 

Soy  beans  (grain) 

Canada       field       pea 

(grain) 

Cow  pea  (grain) 

Tankage 

Meat  scrap 

Blood  meal 

Oil  meal  o.p 

Oil  meal  n.p . 

Gluten  meal 

Dark  feeding  flour.  .  .  . 

Red  dog  flour 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  middlings . 
Buckwheat  shorts 


4.3 

4.7 

2.6 
3.4 
11.7 
4.1 
4.7 
5.7 
5.8 
0.9 
4.3 
3.3 
3.3 
4.6 
4.8 
5.1 


Liquid  Feeds* 

Skim  milk 

90.6 
90.1 

2.9 
3.9 

5.2 
4.0 

0.3 
1.1 

0.7 

Buttermilk 

0.7 

Under  certain  conditions  these  may  become  roughages. 


Nitrogenous  Roughages 
Dry  Feeds 


Alfalfa  hay 

Clover  hay  (red) 
Wheat  bran 


8.4 

7.0 

37.3 

1.4 

15.3 

5.4 

38.2 

1.8 

11.9 

10.2 

41.2 

2.9 

7.4 
6.2 

5.8 


252 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 


Green  Feeds 

Alfalfa 

71.8 
70.8 
83.6 
75.1 
85.0 

"84.7 

3.0 
2.2 
1.8 
3.2 
1.9 

1.8 

11.2 
14.8 

8.7 
11.0 

6.6 

6.9 

0.4 
0.7 
0.2 
0.5 
0.2 

0.3 

2.7 

Clover  (red) 

Cow  pea. 

2.1 

1.7 

Soy  bean 

Vetch     .  .            

2.6 
1.4 

Clovers  other  than  red. 
Canada  field  peas.  .  .  . 

•■l.3- 

Carbohydrate  Roughages 

Green  Feeds 


Rape 

Bluegrass. . 
Oat  fodder 
Rye  fodder 


84.5 

1.5 

8.1 

0.02 

65.1 

3.0 

19.8 

0.8 

62.2 

2.6 

18.9 

1.0 

76.6 

2.1 

14.1 

0.4 

2.0 

2.8 
2.5 
1.8 


The  green  feeds  that  are  specified  under  the  head  of  carbo- 
hydrate concentrates  contain  a  great  deal  of  water.  It  is 
quite  evident  that  if  these  were  fed  in  large  quantities,  so  that 
a  pig  was  compelled  to  take  more  water  than  its  system  de- 
manded they  would  become  roughages  in  the  sense  that  the 
pig  would  be  compelled  to  take  more  bulk  in  the  form  of  water 
than  would  normally  go  with  the  proper  quantity  of  nutrients 
other  than  water.  This  would  have  a  tendency  to  distend 
the  capacity  of  its  digestive  apparatus.  An  excess  of  water, 
however,  would  have  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the  pig. 

The  liquid  feeds  specified  under  the  head  of  nitrogenous 
concentrates  may  likewise  be  considered  either  as  concentrates 
or  roughages. 

The  nitrogenous  roughages  aie  given  under  two  subject 
heads,  dry  feeds  and  green  feeds.  The  dry  feeds  are  roughages 
because  of  the  large  quantity  of  crude  fiber  they  contain.  The 
green  feeds  also  contain  the  crude  fiber  but  relatively  less 
than  the  dry  feeds  because  they  at  the  same  time  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  water.  This  water  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  metabolism  and  may  take  the  place  of  water  that  is 
fed  as  such  in  connection  with  dry  feeds. 


SCIEXTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING  253 

The  carbohydrate  roughages  are  all  in  the  form  of  green 
feeds  and  may  be  considered,  in  so  far  as  water  is  concerned, 
as  green  feeds  under  the  head  of  nitrogenous  roughages. 

SELECTION    OF   FEEDS 

Feeds  should  be  selected  primarily  to  furnish  the  proper 
quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  palatable  form  as  follows: 
Water,  protein,  carbohydrates,  ether  extract,  mineral  matter, 
and  bulk.  While  some  feeds  may  have  values  other  than  their 
digestible  nutrients,  if  a  pig  is  properly  fed,  these  are  of  minor 
importance.  Home-grown  feeds  should  be  used  where  pos- 
sible, but  where  these  are  not  available  commercial  feeds  may 
be  substituted.  While  many  of  the  commercial  feeds  are  all 
right  and  as  good  perhaps  as  those  that  may  be  grown  on  the 
farm  the  profit  in  general  is  greater  from  home-grown  feeds. 
Furthermore,  the  supply  of  commercial  feeds  is  limited  and 
available  onl}^  to  a  comparatively  small  number  of  feeders. 

The  carbohydrate  feeds  in  general  must  be  used  to  make  up 
the  carbohydrate  part  of  the  ration  and  the  nitrogenous  feeds 
to  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  protein.  All  carbohydrate  feeds 
contain  some  protein  and  most  all  nitrogenous  feeds  contain 
some  carbohydrate;  consequentl}^  in  the  selection  of  the  feeds 
for  a  ration  they  should  be  combined  in  such  quantities  that  the 
proper  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  is  supplied. 

Water  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  feeds.  Those 
classified  as  dry  feeds  usually  contain  only  a  small  quantity — 
from  8  to  18  per  cent.;  other  feeds  such  as  liquid  feeds  and 
succulent  feeds  contain  as  high  as  85  or  90  per  cent,  of  water. 
Since,  however,  these  sources  of  water — excepting  liquid  feeds 
— are  not  sufficient,  pigs  must  be  fed  water  directly. 

A  pig  under  five  or  six  months  of  age  apparently  cannot  as- 
similate as  much  as  it  can  digest;  consequently  best  results  are 
obtained  if  it  is  not  fed  more  than  it  can  finally  use  for  the 
construction  of  body  tissue  and  for  energy  and  heat  produc- 
tion. In  order  to  limit  the  nutrients  to  the  amount  that  the 
pig  can  most  profitably  use,  roughages  may  be  introduced 
into  the  ration  at  this  time.  These  serve  a  double  purpose, 
as  already  explained. 


254  LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

METHOD  OF  CALCULATING  A  RATION 

Suppose  that  a  bunch  of  pigs  is  two  months  old  and  weighs 
6S5  pounds.  The  foregoing  charts  show  that  at  this  time  the 
pigs  require  daily  for  every  100  pounds  of  live  weight  13  pounds 
of  water,  0.6  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein,  and  2.4  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrate.  Multiplying  these  quantities  re- 
spectively by  the  total  live  weight,  namely,  685  pounds,  and 
pointing  off  the  proper  figure,  it  is  seen  that  the  pigs  will  re- 
quire a  total  of  89.05  pounds  of  water,  4.11  pounds  of  diges- 
tible crude  protein  and  16.44  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate 
a  day.  Suppose  that  alfalfa,  corn,  barley,  skim  milk,  soy 
beans  and  water  are  to  be  used  to  make  up  this  ration.  With  a 
table  like  the  following,  specifying  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  present  in  these  feeds  from  1  to  9  pounds  inclusive, 
a  ration  may  be  accurately  calculated. 

From  this  table  tenths  of  pounds,  units  of  pounds,  and 
tens  of  pounds  may  be  added  to  the  ration  by  reading  the 
quantities  of  nutrients  correctly  with  respect  to  the  decimal 
point.  To  get  tenths  read  with  the  decimal  point  one  place 
to  the  left  and  for  tens  of  pounds  one  place  to  the  right.  The 
use  of  the  table  eliminates  multiplication  at  each  operation. 

Pigs  two  months  old  can  use  but  a  Hmited  quantity  of  a 
roughage  like  alfalfa,  consequently  in  making  up  this  ration 
not  much  can  be  used  at  this  time.  Relatively  more  should 
be  added  as  they  get  older.  Suppose  that  corn  and  barley  are 
to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  corn  to  one  part  of 
barley  and  that  but  a  limited  amount  of  skim  milk  is  at  hand. 
In  order  to  make  up  this  ration,  then,  the  following  is  evolved: 

The  total  amount  of  nutrients  required  for  each  day  as 
shown  above  for  the  bunch  of  pigs  weighing  685  pounds  is  as 
follows : 

Water  Protein  Carbohydrate 

89.05  4.11  16.44 

These  are  obtained  by  first  putting  down  the  desired  amount 
of  each  roughage  (alfalfa),  with  its  water,  protein,  and  car- 
bohydrate, then  the  carbohydrate  concentrates,  corn  and 
barley,  and  then  the  skim  milk.     Have  enough  of  these  so  that 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING 


255 


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250 


LIVESTOCK    ON    THE    FAKM 


the  carbohydrates  when  added  will  be  nearly  equal  to  the 
required  quantity.  Next  list  the  nitrogenous  concentrate, 
soy  beans,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  bring  the  protein  as  well 
as  the  carbohydrate  up  to  the  required  amount.  If  the  result 
does  not  come  out  right  the  first  time,  it  can  easily  be  adjusted 
by  the  use  of  the  table.  When  this  is  done  add  sufficient 
water  to  make  the  required  amount. 


Pounds 

Water 

Protein 

1 

Carbohydrate 

Alfalfa 

Corn.             .        .  . 

0.9 
10.0 
3.0 
0.3 
6.0 
0.7 
40.0 

4.0 
0.6 

49.6 

0.072 
1.300 
0.390 
0.039 
0.660 
0.077 
36.400 

0.063 
0.700 
0.210 
0.021 
0.480 
0.056 
1.200 

0.333 
6.600 

Corn 

1.980 

Corn 

0.198 

Barley 

Barley 

Skim  milk. 

3.900 
0.455 
2  000 

Soy  beans     

38.938 
0.440 
0.066 

2.730 
1.200 
0.180 

15.466 
0.880 

Sov  beans 

0.132 

Water.. 

39.444 
49.600 

4.110 

16.478 

• 

89 . 044 

4.110 

16.478 

The  above-mentioned  quantities  of  feed,  then — namely; 
alfalfa,  0.9  pound;  corn,  13.3  pounds;  barley,  6.7  pounds: 
skim  milk,  40.0  pounds;  soy  beans,  4.6  pounds;  water,  49.6 
pounds — should  be  fed  to  these  pigs  for  one  day  when  they  are 
two  months  old. 

In  order  to  get  the  increase  specified  by  the  charts  an  esti- 
mate must  be  made  as  to  what  the  pigs  will  weigh  at  the  close 
of  the  week.  Suppose  that  it  is  estimated  that  the  lot  will 
gain  65  pounds  during  the  week,  making  its  total  weight  at 
the  close  of  the  week  750  pounds.  This  estimated  live  weight 
should  then  be  multiplied  by  the  quantities  given  by  the 
charts  for  the  age  attained.     The  results  will  be  as  follows: 


Water 
12.8 


Protein 

0.615 


Carbohydrate 

2.42 


SCIK.N'riFIC    SW'lNl-:    kkedixc. 


Multiplying  these  by  the  estimated  live  weight  the  following 
is  obtained  as  the  requirement  of  nutrients  at  the  close  of  this 
and  the  beginning  of  the  following  week: 


!)6.() 


Protein 

5.2275 


('arboliydr;it< 
18.15 


To  get  these  quantities  take  the  total  amount  of  nutrients 
fed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week  and  add  enough  feeds  to  make 
the  nutrients  amount  to  the  quantit}^  stated.  Proceed  as 
above,  namely,  add  the  roughage  first,  the  carbohydrate 
concentrates  next,  then  the  nitrogenous  concentrates  and 
lastly  the  water.     By  so  doing  the  following  will  be  obtained: 


Pound.-^ 

Water 

Protein 

Carbohydrate 

Brought  forward .  .  . 

Alfalfa 

Corn 

Barley. 

Soy  beans 

Soy  beans 

O.V 
0.8 
0.3 
3.0 
0.2 

6.4 

89 . 044 
0.056 
0.104 
0.033 
0.330 
0.022 

4.110 
0.049 
0.056 
0.024 
0.900 
0.060 

16.478 
,       0.259 
0.528 
0.195 
0.660 
0.044 

Water 

89.589 
6.400 

5.199 

18.164 

95.989 

5.199 

18.164 

These  quantities  of  nutrients  correspond  very  closely  to 
those  calculated  as  the  requirement  of  nutrients  at  the  time. 

The  quantities  of  feeds  used  to  get  the  additional  nutrients 
should  be  added  to  those  fed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week  and 
the  totals  will  be  the  quantities  to  be  fed  at  the  close  of  the 
week.     By  adding  these  the  following  are  obtained: 


Alfalfa  1.6;  Corn  14 
Water  .56.0. 


Barley  7.0;  Skim  milk  40.0;  Soy  beans  7.8; 


This  is  the  total  quantity  to  be  fed  for  each  day  at  the  close 
of  the  week.     The  quantity  of  feed  on  the  first  day  of  the  week 

17 


258  LIVP]STOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

then  may  gradually  be  varied  to  that  fed  on  the  last  day. 
Thus  there  will  be  a  gradual  increase  fed  from  day  to  day. 

The  average  weight  for  the  week  may  also  be  taken  to 
calculate  the  ration  and  then  this  uniform  quantity  may  be 
fed  during  the  week.  This  simplifies  matters  considerably 
and  in  practice  proves  entirely  successful. 

To  determine  the  quantity  of  feed  necessary  for  a  bunch  of 
pigs  at  any  time  between  the  ages  of  two  months  and  eight 
months  the  same  method  is  followed.  The  vertical  lines  in 
the  figures  indicate  the  age  of  the  pigs  and  stage  of  the  period 
of  feeding.  The  point  at  which  these  intersect  with  the  line 
for  the  various  nutrients  indicates  the  amounts  of  the  nutrients 
in  pounds  as  specified  by  the  horizontal  lines.  Multiply 
these  quantities  by  the  total  live  weight  and  proceed  as  before. 

As  is  clearly  evident  this  method  of  feeding  is  intended  for 
pigs  that  have  been  well  fed  from  the  time  they  learned  to 
eat.  If  a  feeder  has  a  bunch  of  pigs  that  have  not  ])een  fed  well 
it  may  be  necessary,  in  order  to  get  the  best  results,  to  start 
back  a  little  farther  than  at  the  point  in  the  chart  indicated  by 
the  age  of  the  pigs  in  question.  Thrifty  lean  pigs  need  to  be 
fed  a  little  more.  This  is  accomplished  by  adding  a  little  to 
the  weight  used  in  calculating  the  ration. 

In  order  to  furnish  variety  in  the  above-calculated  ration, 
corn  and  barley  are  used,  both  being  carbohydrate  con- 
centrates. The  proportion  of  these  two  feeds  may  be  governed 
to  some  extent  by  the  amounts  available.  Skim  milk  is  a 
feed  of  the  same  class  as  soy  beans. 

The  alfalfa  is  used  primarily  for  furnishing  bulk,  and  also 
protein.  At  the  beginning  of  the  period,  the  pigs,  two  months 
of  age,  will  not  be  able  to  use  a  very  large  quantity  of  this. 
As  they  grow,  however,  during  the  next  two  or  three  months 
they  will  be  able  to  take  more  and  the  quantity  in  the  ration 
should  be  increased  so  that  the  appetite  of  the  pigs  is  nearly 
satisfied.  After  the  pigs  are  four  or  five  months  of  age,  it  will 
be  necessary  gradually  to  decrease  the  alfalfa  or  other  rough- 
age in  order  to  make  room  for  the  gradually  increasing  quan- 
tity of  the  protein  and  carbohydrate  nutrients.  The  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  water  will  also  help  to  make  possible  the  in- 
crease in  protein  and  carbohydrates. 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINE    FEEDING 
SUGGESTED  APPROXIMATE  RATION 


259 


If  a  swine  feeder  does  not  have  the  incUnation  to  follow 
the  method  of  feeding  outlined  above  and  will  be  .satisfied  with 
results  according  to  his  practice,  the  following  suggested 
approximate  ration  may  be  used: 


Pounds  of   Feed   per 

100  P 

OUNDb 

Live 

Weight   per   Day 

Age  of  Pigs  in  Months 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Ground  corn  (fine) 

Soy  beans  (ground  fine) 

Skim  milk 

Water 


2.6 

2.8 

3.0 

3.2 

3.3 

3.0 

0.8 

0.9 

1.0 

0.6 

0.8 

0.4 

6.0 

6.0 

6.0 

6.0 

6.0 

0.0 

6.6 

5.1 

3.8 

2.6 

1.4 

5.5 

2.6 
0.4 
0.0 
4.0 


This  kind  of  ration  necessarily  does  not  carry  with  it  so  much 
meaning  as  does  one  specially  calculated  because  there  prob- 
ably are  no  two  farms  where  the  same  feeds  are  available  in 
the  same  proportion.  By  using  different  feeds  and  different 
quantities  of  the  same  feeds,  however,  an  infinite  number  of 
combinations  may  be  made,  all  of  which  may  be  good. 

In  the  ration  suggested,  if  the  feeds  mentioned  are  not 
available  substitutions  may  be  made.  If  corn  is  not  available, 
rye,  barley,  wheat,  rice,  etc.,  may  be  used.  If  soy  beans  are 
not  at  hand  peas  may  be  used  but  the  quantity  must  be  in- 
creased as  peas  do  not  contain  as  much  protein.  Peas  would 
also  increase  the  carbohydrates,  hence  the  corn  would  have  to 
be  correspondingly  decreased,  or  these  may  be  left  out  and 
more  skim  milk  added.  Some  of  the  protein  may  also  be 
supplied  in  the  form  of  clover  and  alfalfa.  If  skim  milk  is 
not  available  more  of  some  other  nitrogenous  feed  may  be 
supplied  and  also  more  water  as  milk  is  85  to  90  per  cent, 
water. 

In  mentioning  feeds  the  writer  has  had  in  mind  suggesting 
those  which  may  be  produced  on  the  farm.  If  nitrogenous 
feeds  are  to  be  purchased,  tankage,  oil  meal,  blood  meal,  etc., 
may  be  used,  but  it  is  well  to  remember  that,  in  general,  feeds 
can  be  produced  more  economically  on  the  farm. 


260  LIVESTOCK    (JX    THE    FARM 


OFFHAND  FEEDING 

Many  people  are  too  indifferent  in  regard  to  this  whole 
matter  even  to  attempt  to  feed  hogs  according  to  the  method 
outlined.  For  the  benefit  of  such  the  following  offhand  rule 
is  here  presented.  If  milk  is  available  it  should  be  diluted, 
using  one-half  milk  and  one-half  water.  If  then  all  the  corn 
is  ground  into  a  fine  meal  and  put  into  this  milk  and  water 
together  with  all  the  other  feeds  used,  a  very  thin  slop  can  be 
made  for  pigs  about  two  months  old.  This  slop  should  have 
about  the  consistency  of  thick  buttermilk.  If  these  pigs  are 
to  be  finished  for  market  at  eight  months  of  age  the  amount  of 
liquid  used  should  be  gradually  reduced  so  that  the  slop  has 
the  consistency  of  a  thick  mush  at  the  finishing  period.  If 
part  of  the  corn  is  to  be  fed  unground,  the  slop  must  be 
made  correspondingly  thinner. 

If  pigs  are  to  be  developed  for  breeding  purposes  the  slop 
should  never  be  made  thick.  The  breeding  herd  also  should 
have  a  thin  slop. 

The  quantity  of  milk  mentioned  will  furnish  about  the  right 
quantity  of  protein  during  the  first  part  of  the  period  for  pigs 
that  are  to  be  developed  for  breeding  purposes.  During  the 
latter  part  of  this  period  the  amount  of  milk  should  be  reduced. 

If  milk  is  not  available  other  nitrogenous  concentrates 
should  be  used,  such  as  peas,  soy  beans,  oil  meal  and  tankage. 
If  the  ration  contains  the  proper  amount  of  bulk  and  water,  and 
the  pig  be  fed  what  it  will  clean  up  readily,  the  ration  might 
contain  three  parts  of  corn  to  one  of  peas,  six  parts  of  corn  to 
one  of  soy  beans  or  oil  meal  and  eight  parts  of  corn  to  one  of 
tankage  during  the  early  part  of  the  feeding  period.  As  the 
pigs  grow  older  they  should  have  less  of  the  nitrogenous  con- 
centrates. Other  carbohydrate  concentrates  should  also  be 
used  in  addition  to  corn  as  a  part  of  the  ration.  If  clover  or 
alfalfa  are  available  either  in  the  form  of  pasture  or  as  hay  less 
of  the  nitrogenous  concentrates  need  be  used. 

For  market  pigs  a  little  more  of  the  nitrogenous  concen- 
trates should  be  used  during  the  growing  period  than  is 
si)ecified  for  breeding  pigs  and  less  during  the  fattening  stage. 


SCIENTIFIC    SWINK    FKEDING  2()l 


METHOD  OF  FEEDING 


It  is  of  primary  significance  tliat  eacli  pig  in  the  lot  should 
get  its  proportionate  amount  of  the  various  feed  nutrients, 
and  very  great  harm  results  if  the  nutrients,  and  especially 
the  crude  protein,  are  unequalh^  distributed  among  the  in- 
dividuals of  a  lot.  For  the  sake  of  equal  cUstribution  of  this 
ingredient  especially,  it  is  suggested  that  the  grains  used  be 
ground  and  mixed  with  the  milk  and  water,  thus  making  a 
slop  of  all  the  ingredients  except  the  mineral  matter.  A  little 
of  the  corn,  however,  may  be  fed  whole  in  order  to  develop 
the  teeth  and  to  accustom  the  pigs  to  feed  in  this  form  for 
purposes  later  in  life  when  it  may  be  advantageous  to  use  feeds 
in  this  form. 

The  feeding  trough  should  have  a  swinging  panel  over  it 
or  else  be  in  a  separate  feeding  pen  so  that  the  slop  can  be 
poured  into  it  without  being  disturbed  by  the  pigs.  When  the 
slop  is  in  the  trough  and  the  pigs  are  all  present  the  panel  over 
the  trough  may  be  swung  back,  or  the  gate  to  the  extra  feeding 
pen  may  be  opened  wide  letting  all  the  pigs  come  to  the  trough 
at  the  same  time.  Then,  if  the  pigs  are  of  equal  size  and  are 
not  too  numerous,  a  good  distribution  of  the  nutrients  to  the 
different  individuals  of  the  lot  will  result. 

If  it  is  impossible  to  have  the  feeds  ground  it  is  still  possible 
to  distribute  the  various  nutrients  fairly  well.  If  the  protein 
i*^  to  be  fed  in  the  form  of.so}^  beans  or  peas,  these  may  be 
harvested  and  stored  away  together  with  the  vine.  At 
feeding  time  enough  ma}^  be  weighed  or  measured  out  to  fur- 
nish the  proper  amount  of  protein  and  this  distributed  over  a 
large  feeding  floor  or  on  pasture  where  the  pigs  can  have  free 
access  to  it.  While  the  pigs  are  doing  the  hulling  and  grinding, 
each  will  have  an  opportunity  to  get  its  share.  This  also 
presupposes  that  pigs  of  equal  size  and  age  are  being  fed 
together  and  that  the}^  will  eat  with  approximately  the  same 
rapidity.  If  the  protein  is  thus  distributed,  the  corn  may  be 
fed  in  the  form  of  ear  corn  or  shelled  corn.  If  then  the  right 
quantity  of  water  is  fed  fairly  good  results  will  be  possible. 
During  the  winter  season,  however,  when  pigs  will  not  drink 
enough  by  such  practice  it  is  necessary  to  mix  at  least  a  small 


262  LIVE.STOCK    ON    THE    FARM 

quantity  of  meal  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water  to  make  it 
palatable.     This  should  then  be  fed  to  them  in  the  trough. 

Better  results  are  possible  when  pigs  are  fed  three  times  a 
day  than  when  they  are  fed  only  twice.  When  pigs  get  to  the 
age  at  which  they  are  called  shotes,  and  get  considerable  of 
their  feed  in  the  form  of  green  feeds  from  pasture,  the  green 
feeds  may  serve  in  place  of  the  noon  feed. 

From  the  data  at  hand  and  from  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  it  appears  that  better  results  may  be  obtained  by 
feeding  on  pasture  than  by  feeding  in  the  dry  lot.  The 
amounts  of  nutrients  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  are  intended 
for  dry-lot  feeding  and  it  is  thought  that  if  pigs  are  fed  on  good 
pasture  that  these  quantities  of  nutrients  may  be  somewhat 
reduced.  Nevertheless,  one  of  the  most  important  features  of 
feeding  on  pasture,  and  it  seems  as  if  it  might  be  the  most 
important,  is  the  exercise  obtained  by  this  method.  Further- 
more, under  such  conditions  pigs  are  able  to  utilize  more  than 
under  dry-lot  conditions,  and  the  author  has  had  good  success 
in  feeding  according  to  the  foregoing  formulas  on  pasture. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  174 
Abortion,  in  cows,  164 

in  swine,  202 
Acquired  characteristics,  99 
Action  of  roadster  type  horse,  122 
Aeration  of  soil,  39 
Air,  action  of,  in  soil  formation,  17 

or  oxygen,  80 
Alleyways  for  poultry  houses,  222 
American  trotter,  130 
Ancestry,  95 

Animal  body,  nature  of,   ol 
functional  parts  of,  51 

breeding,  91 
Appetite,  86 

Baby  beef,  171 
Bacteria,  in  milk,  147 

in  soil  fertility,  37 

source  of,  37 
Balanced  ration,  70 
Beef  cattle,  170 
breeds  of,  174 

bull,  use  of,  in  dairy  herd,  160 
Belgian  horse,  128 
Berkshire  swine,  208 
Black  teeth,  in  pigs,  200 
Blemishes,  in  horses,  133 
Bloat  in  cattle,  169 
Boar,  194 
Body,  length  of,  58 

affect  on  constitution,  59 
on  prolificacy,  59 

in  cattle,  134 

in  cows,  140 

of  horses,  63 

length  and  depth  of,  117 

temperature,  80 


Breeding,  91 

cattle,  135 

horses,  131 

in  nature,  97 

practice,  100 

resemblance  and  difference,  90 

selection  in,  96 

variation  in,  95 
Breeds,  beef  cattle,  174 

dairy  cattle,  153 

heavy  horses,  125 

light  horses,  129 

poultry,  224 

sheep,  185 

swine,  206 
Brood  mare,  care  of,  132 
colt  of,  132 
sire  of  colt,  133 
Brooders,  217 
Bulk  in  ration,  248 
Butter,  136 

Calf,  care  of,  150 

feeding,  74 

weaning  of,  152 
Capacity  in  cows,  140 
Carbohydrates,  70,  244 

feeds,  72 

for  breeding  pigs,  245 

requirement  of,  for  market  pigs, 
244 
Carbon,  67 

Castration  of  pigs,  200 
Cattle,  134 

breeding,  135 

feeding,  135,  173 

length  of  body,  134 
Changes  in  ration,  86 


263 


264 


INDEX 


Cheese,  137 

Chester  White  swine,  209 

Cheviot  sheep,  191 

Chickens,  classification  of,  225 

Chicks,  feeding  of,  216 

Clay  soil,  origin  of,  19 

Clydesdale  horse,  127 

Coach  horses,  124 

Coarse  feeds,  use  of,  for  livestock, 

28 
Colts,  care  of,  133 

exercise  for,  107 
Concentrates,  82 

for  horses,  109 
Condition,  in  animals,  64 
Constitution,  57 

how  determined,  57 

how  obtained,  58 

in  cows,  141 
Cooking  feeds,  89 
Corn,  as  feed,  69 
for  horses,  110 

time  to  cut  for  silo,  159 
Cotswold  sheep,  192 
Cows  freshening,  spring  or  fall,  1()5 

shelter  for,  145 
Crop  rotation,  37 
Cultivation  of  soil,  38 

as  affecting  water  supply,  38 

Dairy  barn,  145 

cattle,  breeds  of,  153 

cow,  136 

feeding  of,  137 
judging  of,  140 
Delicacy,  as  related  to  quality,  56 
Digestibility,  coefficients  of,  232 
Digestion,  66 

Draft  horse  conformation,  114 
Drinking  vessels  for  poultry,  223 
Dry  feeds,  84 
Dual-purpose  cattle,  167 
Ducklings,  feeding  of,  228 


Ducks,  227 

feeding,  of  for  breeding,  228 
Duroc-Jersey  swine,  210 
Dusting  box  for  poultry,  222 

Ear  marks  for  pigs,  200 
Egg  breeds  of  chickens,  225 
Eggs  for  hatching,  care  of,  218 

preserving  of,  218 
Energy,  storage  of,  71 
Environment,  98,  105 

for  horses,  107 
Ether    extract    or    fat    in    swine 

feeding,  246 
Exercise  as  affecting  respiration,  81 

for  chicks,  248 

Factors  in  feeding  ccnvs,  139 

of  waste,  233 
illustrated,  237 
Farm  animals,  51 
classes  of,  51 

life,  interest  in,  45 
Fat,  as  a  laxative,  73 

concentration  of,  75 

feeds,  75 

in  a  ration,  73 

use  of,  74 
Fattening  poultry,  216 
Feed,  concentrated,  232 
Feeder-cattle,  173 
Feeding  cattle,  135 

cows,  137 

individuality,  139 

ducks,  228 

geese,  229 

general  principles  of,  53 

horses,  109 

in  winter,,  85 

method  of,  for  swine,  261 

offhand,  for  swine,  260 

pigs,  211 

regularly,  55 


INDEX 


265 


Feeding,  standard,  2i^8 

times  per  day,  88 

turkeys,  227 
Feeds,  carbohydrate,  72 

classification  of,  82 
for  swine,  249 

cooking  of,  89 

dry,  84 

for  animals,  66 

green,  83 

grinding  of,  88 

liquid,  84 

protein,  70 

selection  of,  for  swine,  253 

soaking  of,  90 
Feet  of  horses,  119 

care  of,  112 
Fence  habits  of  animals,  32 
Fences,  31 

for  horses,  108 

how  built,  33 

kinds  of,  32 
Fencing,  cost  of,  35 

manner  of,  32 
Fine  wool  sheep,  185 
Fire  in  relation  to  oxygen  supply, 

81 
Food  hopper  for  poultry,  223 
Forage    crops,     necessity    of,     for 

livestock,  37 
Form  of  animal  body,  63 
Fowls,  exercise  for,  214 

Galloway  cattle,  177 
Geese,  229 

feeding  of,  for  breeding,  229 
General-purpose  breeds  of  chickens, 

224 
Gestation,  102 
Goats,  184 

Good  cow,  how  obtained,  149 
Goslings,  feeding  of,  230 
Grade  horses,  125 


Grain  farmer,  17 
farming,  17 

business  of,  24 

equipment  for,  25 

labor  problem  f<n-,  24 

revenues  of,  24 

social  aspect  of,  25 
for  poultry,  214 
Green  feeds,  83 

for  poultry,  215 
Grinding  feeds,  88 

for  swine,  283 
Grit  and  oj^ster  shell  for  poultry, 

215 
Growth,  67 
Guernsey  cattle,  156 
Guineas,  230 

Hackney  horse,  130 

Hail,  41 

Hampshire  Down  sheep,  191 

swine,  209 
Harness  fitting,  for  horses,  112 
Harvesting,    as    affecting    a    live- 
stock farm,  31 
Head,  of  horse,  119 
Heat,  in  crop  production,  41 
Heavy  horses,  breeds  of,  125 
Hen,  the  sitting,  217 
Herd  boar,  194 

building  up  of,  166 

management,  in  swine,  196 

sire,  104 

testing,  166 
Heredity,  94 
Hereford  cattle,  176 
Hog  cholera,  197 
Holstein  Friesian  cattle,  154 
Horses,  107 

barns  for,  108 

breeding  of,  131 

breeds  of,  heavy,  125 
light,  129 


266 


INDEX 


Horses,  care  of,  112,  113 

•    conformation  of,  for  draft,  114 

feeding  of,  109 
manner  of.  111 

feet  of,  112 

fitting  harness  for,  112 

grades,  125 

selection  of,  114 

types  of,  113 
Hothouse  lambs,  180 
Housing  for  horses,  108 
Humus,  39 

action  of,  in  soil  fertility,  19 

in  soil  formation,  19 

nature  of,  19 
Hydrogen,  67 

Incubators  217 

Inheritance  as  a  factor  in  feeding, 

54 
Insects,  41 

Jersey  cattle,  154 
Judging  cows  (the  cow  in  outline), 
140 

Labor  on  livestock  farm,  31 
Lambing  time,  181 
Lambs,  weaning  of,  181 
Large  Yorkshire  swine,  207 
Laying  hens,  feeding  of,  21() 
Lean  meat  or  muscle,  breeding  for, 

57 
Leguminous  plants,  40 
Leicester  sheep,  192 
Lice  on  pigs,  202 
on  poultry,  224 
Light  horses,  breeds  of,  129 
Limbs,  cleanness  of  in  horses,  117 
Limiting  element,  in  soil  fertility,  22 
Lincoln  sheep,  192 
Liquid  feeds,  84 
purpose  of,  84 


Livestock,  economy  of,  36 
farm,  starting  of,  104 

herd  sire,  value  of,  104 

location  of,  106 
farmer,  nature    of    problem    of, 

41 
farming,  26 

advantages  of,  28 

purpose  of,  26 
place  of,  26 

Maintenance,  as  a  factor  in  feed- 
ing, 53 
cows,  140 
Man,  in  animal  breeding,  91 

type  of,  for  livestock  farm,  40 
Manure,  161 
Marino  sheep,  188 
Marketing  hogs,  202 
Meat  breeds  of  chickens,  225 

food  for  poultry,  215 
Mental  connection  in  milking,  14£ 
Metabohsm,  81,  232 
Milk,  136 
constancy  of,  137 
veins,  142 
wells,  142 
Milking,  146 
machine,  149 
manner  of,  149 
Mineral  matter,  76,  235 
for  cows,  139 
for  horses,  110 
importance  of,  236 
sources  of,  235 
Mites  on  poultry,  224 
Moisture,  41 
Mules,  124 
Mutton  sheep,  188 

Neck  of  horse,  119 
Nerve  force,  144 

Nests  for  poultry  houses,  221 


INDEX 


267 


Nitrogen,  67 
Nutrients,  67,  232 

Oats,  as  a  feed  for  horses,  109 
Overfeeding,  68 

how  avoided,  69 
Oxford  Down  sheep,  190 
Oxygen,  67 
Oyster  shell  for  poultry,  215 

Palatability,  86 
Parasites  of  sheep,  181 
Pastern  of  horse,  118 
Pasture,  87 

for  cows,  140 
Peafowl,  230 
Pedigree,  95 
Percheron  horse,  125 
Pigeons,  231 
Pigs,  193 

Poland  China  swine,  209 
Polled  Durham  cattle,  174 
Ponies,  123 
Post  timber,  34 
Poultry,  213 

fattening  of,  216 

feeding  of,  214 

houses,  218 
size  of,  223 

types  and  breeds  of,  224 
Protein,  67,  233,  236 

distribution  of,  243 

feeds,  70 

for  cows,  137 

illustrated,  241 

in  overfeeding,  68 

requirement     of,     for     breeding 
pigs,  240 
for  breeding  herd,  244 
for  market  pigs,  239 

sources  of,  242' 

use  of  in  growth,  67 
Pure  bred  animal,  101 


Quality  in  animals,  55 
in  cows,  144 

Ration,  changes  in,  86 

method  of  calculating,  for  swine 
feeding,  254 

palatability  of,  86 

suggested  approximate,  for  swine 
feeding,  259 

variety  in,  87 
Reproduction,  93 
Resemblance  and  difference,  96 
Returns  from  livestock,  40 
Ribs,  lack  of,  in  good  cow,  143 
Roadster  horse,  type  of,  120 

weight  of,  120 
Rocks  in  soil  formation,  17 
Roosts  for  poultry,  220 
Rooting  by  pigs,  202 
Roughages,  82,  232 

for  horses,  110 

Saddle  horse,  130 

Salt,  77 

Sandy  soil,  origin  of,  19 

Scours  in  pigs,  201 

Selection,  96 

Sex,  breeding  for,  103 

Sheep,  178 

as  weed  eradicators,  181 

breeds  of,  185 

care  of,  180 

dual-purpose,  nature  of,  180 

feeding  of,  182 

fleece  as  shelter,  179 

parasites  of,  181 

shearing  of,  181 

trimming  feet,  181 
Shelter,  85 

for  cows,  145 
Shetland  pony,  origin  of,  123 

advantages  of,  124 
Shire  horse,  127 


268 


INDEX 


Shorthorn  cattle,  174 
Shoulders  of  horse,  116 
Shropshire  sheep,  189 
Silo,  158 

advantages  of,  158 

disadvantages  of,  158 

feeds  for,  158 

filling  of,  160 

kinds  of,  160 
Sire,  in  horse  breeding,  133 

selection  of,  98 

value  of,  97 
Size,  as  a  factor  in  feeding,  54 

in  cows,  145 

of  roadster  horses,  120 
Soaking  feeds,  90 
Soil  as  anchorage,  21 

bacteria,  23 

protection  of,  23 

good,  21 

origin  of,  17 
.    poor,  21 

washing,  22,  40 
Souring*  of  milk,  147 
Southdown  sheep,  190 
Sow,  how  obtained,  195 

young  or  old,  196 
StalHon,  133 
Swine,  193 

breeds  of,  206 

shelter  for,  199 
,  time  to  breed,  200 

types  of,  203 
Swine-feeding,  211 

problem,  nature  of,  233 

scientific,  232 

Tamworth  swine,  207 

Temperament,  65 

Temperature  in  soil  formation,  19 

Testing  milk,  166 

Thirst,  86 

Thoroughbred,  129 


Thumps  in  pigs,  201 
Tuberculosis,  161 

in  swine,  202 

symptoms  of,  164 

test  for,  162 
Turkeys,  226 

feeding  of,  227 

housing  of,  227 
Types  of  horses,  113 

Udder,  141 

Unsoundness  in  horses,  133 

Urine,  dripping  of,  80 

Variation,  95 

Variety  in  ration,  84 

Veal  calf,  153 

Ventilation  for  poultry  house,  220 

Vigor  and  breeding  in  swine,  204 

Waste  feeds,  used  by  farm  animals, 
31 

lands,  in  food  production,  28 
Water,  77 

action  of,  in  soil  formation,  17 

as  factor  in  soil  fertility.  19 

as  drink,  78 

as  solvent,  77 

in  cow  feeding,  138 

in  horse  feeding.  111 

in  regulating  temperature,  80 

in  swine  feeding,  246 

in  transportation,  79 

requirement  of,  for  market  pigs, 
247 
for  breeding  pigs,  247 
Wealth  of  flesh,  56 
Weaning  pigs,  201 
Weeds,  used  by  livestock,  28 
Wind,  as  affecting  different  kind  of 

farmers,  40 
Windows,  for  poultry  house,  220 
Winter  feeding,  85 


INDEX  269 


Withers,  143  Work  horses,  107 

Wool,  178  Worms,  in  pigs,  202 

shrinking  of,  in  garmsnts,  179 

warmth  of,  178  Yolk  in  wool,  179 

volk  in,  179 


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Prof.  G.  H.  Caldwell,  University  of  North  Dakota:  ''Of  £.11  tne  text- 
books on  physiology  which  I  have  examined,  Howell's  is  the  best.'' 

Military  Hygiene  and  Sanitation.  By  Lieut.-Col.  Frank  R 
Keeper,  Professor  of  Military  Hygiene,  United  States  Military 
Academy,  West  Point.  12010  of  305  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth, 
$1.50  net.  Published  July,  IQ14. 

You  get  here  chapters  on  the  care  of  troops,  recruits  and  recruiting,  per- 
sonal hygiene,  physical  training,  preventable  diseases,  clothing,  equip- 
ment, water-supply,  foods  and  their  preparation,  hygiene  and  sanitation 
of  posts,  barracks,  the  troopship,  marches,  camps,  and  battlefields;  dis- 
posal of  wastes,  trojjic  and  arctic  service,  venereal  diseases,  alcohol,  etc. 


Saunders'  College  Text-Books 


weim^s 


The  Treatment  of  Emergencies.  By  Hubley  R.  Owen,  M.  D.,  Sur- 
geon to  the  Philadelphia  General  Hospital.  12010  of  350  pages, 
with  249  illustrations.     Cloth,  $2.00  net.  June,  igi?' 

Dr.  Owen's  book  gives  you  not  only  the  actual  iechnic  of  the  procedures, 
but  also  the  reason  why  a  particular  method  is  advdsed.  This  makes 
for  correctness.  You  get  chapters  on  fraciures  of  all  kinds,  on  contu- 
sions and  wounds,  going  fully  into  symptoms,  treatments,  and  complica- 
tions. Particularly  strong  is  the  chapter  on  gunshot  wounds,  which 
gives  the  new  treatments  that  the  great  European  War  has  developed. 
You  get  the  principles  of  hemorrhage,  together  with  its  constitutional 
and  local  treatments.  You  get  chapters  on  sprains,  strains,  disloca- 
tions, burns  and  scalds,  etc.  The  book  is  complete;  it  is  thorough; 
it  is  practical. 

Erady^i  P(iir§©]riial  MdaMk 

Personal  Health.  By  William  Brady,  M.  D.,  Elmira,  New  York. 
i2mo  of  407  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50  net       Published  September,  iqi6. 

Dr.  Brady  teaches  you  how  to  take  care  of  yourself,  how  to  forestall  ill- 
ness, how  to  apply  sound,  practical  judgment  to  the  routine  of  your 
daily  life.  He  gives  you  a  clear  idea  of  the  causes  of  ill-health  of  any 
kind.  He  prescribes  simple  treatments  when  these  are  sufficient.  He 
carefully  indicates  the  stage  at  which  professional  advice  should  be 
sought.  He  knows  what  you  want,  for  fifteen  years'  experience  has 
taught  him. 

The  Prevention  of  Disease.  By  Kinelm  Winslow,  M.  D.,  formerly 
Assistant  Professor  of  Comparative  Therapeutics,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity     348  pages,  ill  us.     Cloth,  $1.75  net.  November,  igi6. 

This  book  is  a  practical  guide  for  the  layman,  giving  him  briefly  the 
means  to  avoid  the  various  diseases  described.  The  chapters  on  diet, 
exercise,  tea,  coffee,  and  alcohol  are  of  special  interest,  as  are  those  on 
the  prevention  of  cancer,  colds,  constipation,  obesity,  nervous  disorders, 
tuberculosis,  infantile  paralysis,  sex  hygiene,  decayed  teeth,  colds, 
enlarged  tonsils  and  adenoids,  and  the  diseases  of  middle  age.  The 
work  is  a  record  of  twenty-five  years'  active  practice. 


Saunders'  College  Text-Books 


Pyld^i  Pdirioimiil  IHiygi(iim(i 

Fd)  sonal  Hygiene.  Edited  by  Walter  L.  Pvle,  M.  D.,  Fellow 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine.  i2mo  of  543  pages,  illus- 
trated. New  (yth)  Edition -Puhlished  July,  1917. 

Dr.  Pyle's  work  sets  forth  the  best  means  of  preventing  disease — the  best 
means  to  perfect  health.  It  tells  you  how  to  care  for  the  teeth,  skin, 
complexion,  and  hair.  It  takes  up  mouth  breathing,  catching  cold, 
care  of  the  vocal  cords,  care  of  the  eyes,  school  hygiene,  body  posture, 
ventilation,  house-cleaning,  etc.  There  are  chapters  on  food  adulter- 
ation (by  Dr.  Harvey  W .  Wiley),  domestic  hygiene,  and  home  gymnastics. 
Canadian  Teacher :  "  Such  a  complete  and  authoritative  treatise 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher." 


)   ic^xceircnscg   ir©ir    vv  ©maim 

Personal  Hygiene  and  Physical  Training  for  Women  By 
Anna  M.  Galbraith,  M.  D.  i2mo  of  393  pages,  illustrated. 
Cloth,  $2,25  net.  New  {2d)  Edition— Puhlished  January,  igiy. 

Dr.  Galbraith's  book  meets  a  need  long  existing — a  need  for  a  simple 
manual  of  personal  hygiene  and  physical  training  for  women  along  sci- 
entific lines.  There  are  chapters  on  hair,  hands  and  feet,  dress,  devel- 
opment of  the  form,  and  the  attainment  of  good  carriage  by  dancing, 
walking,  running,  swimming,  rowing,  etc. 

Dr.  Harry  B.  Boice,  Trenton  State  Normal  School:  '*  It  is  intensely 
interesting  and  is  the  finest  work  of  the  kind  of  which  I  know." 


Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine.  By  R.  Tait  McKknzih, 
M.  D.,  Professor  of  Physical  Education,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Octavo  of  585  pages,  with  478  illustratians.  Cloth,  $4.00 
net.  New  {2d)  Edition— Published  June,  1915. 

Chapters  of  special  value  in  college  work  are  those  on  exercise  by  the 
different  systems:  play-grounds,  physical  education  in  school,  college, 
and  university. 

D.  A.  Sargent,  M.  D.,  Hcmcnway  Gymnasium:  "It  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  physical  educator." 


Saunders'  College  Text-Books 


iiiniaini  m  Ml^iriray  §  i©ai€teirn©I©gy 

Veterinary  Bacteriology  By  Robert  E.  Buchanan,  Ph.  D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Bacteriolngy.  and  Charles  Murray,  B.  Sc,  D.  V.  M., 
Associate  Professor  of  Veterinary  Bacteriology,  Iowa  State  College 
of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts.  Octavo  of  5go  pages,  illustrated. 
Cloth,  $3.50  net.        New  {2d)  Edition— Published  September,  igi6. 

Professor  Buchanan's  new  work  goes  minutely  into  the  consideration 
of  immunity,  opsonic  index,  reproduction,  sterilization,  antiseptics, 
biochemic  tests,  culture  media,  isolation  of  cultures,  the  manufacture 
of  the  various  toxins,  antitoxins,  tuberculins,  and  vaccines. 
B.  F.  Kaupp,  D.  V.  S.,  State  Agricultural  College,  Fort  Collins:  "  It  is 
the  best  in  print  on  the  subject.  What  pleases  me  most  is  that  it  con- 
tains all  the  late  results  of  research." 

Sn§g©ini^§  Amatomy  ©IF  D©iniii(g§4n€  Ammak 

Anatomy  oj  Domestic  Animals.  By  Septimus  Sisson,  S.  B.,  V.  S., 
Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  Ohio  State  University.  Octavo 
of  930 pages,  725  illustrations.  Cloth,  $7.50  net.  New  {2d)  Edition. 
September,  IQ14. 

Here  is  a  work  of  the  greatest  usefulness  in  the  study  and  pursuit  of 
the  veterinary  sciences.  This  is  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the 
structure  of  the  principal  domesticated  animals — an  exhaustive  gross 
anatomy  of  the  horse,  ox,  pig,  and  dog,  including  the  splanchnology  of 
the  sheep,  presented  in  a  form  never  before  approached  for  practical 
usefulness. 

Prof.  E.  D.  Harris,  North  Dakota  Agricultural  College:  ''  It  is  the  best 
of  its  kind  in  the  English  language.     It  is  quite  free  from  errors." 

Skairp^s   V(gteriiriiairy  OpkftKaIinni©l©gy 

ophthalmology  for  Veterinarians.  By  Walter  N.  Sharp,  M.  D., 
Professor  of  Ophthalmology,  Indiana  \'eterinary  College.  i2mo 
of  210  pages,  illustrated.     Cloth,  $2.00  net.  April,  igij. 

This  new  work  covers  a  much  neglected  but  important  field  of  veter- 
inary practice.  Dr.  Sharp  has  presented  his  subject  in  a  concise,  crisp 
way,  so  that  you  can  pick  up  his  book  and  get  to  "  the  point  "  quickly. 
He  first  gives  you  the  anatomy  of  the  eye,  then  examination,  the  various 
diseases,  including  injuries,  parasites,  errors  of  refraction. 
Dr.  George  H.  Glover,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Fort  Collins: 
"  It  is  the  best  book  on  the  subject  on  the  market." 


lo  Saunders'  College  Text-Books 

Hadl^y  ©im  tKm  Motb<b 

The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease.  By  Frederick  B.  Hadley, 
D.  V.  M.,  Associate  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science,  University 
of  Wisconsin.     i2mo  of  260  pages,  illustrated.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Publishei  August,  IQ15. 

This  new  work  correlates  the  structure  and  function  of  each  organ  of 
the  body,  and  shows  how  the  hidden  parts  are  related  to  the  form, 
movements,  and  utiHty  of  the  animal.  Then,  in  another  part,  you  get 
a  concise  discussion  of  the  causes,  methods  of  prevention,  and  effects 
of  disease.  The  book  is  designed  especially  as  an  introductory  text  to 
the  study  of  veterinary  science  in  agricultural  schools  and  colleges. 


KaMpp^s  P@Ml{tiry  C^lt^uiird 

Poultry  Culture,  Sanitation,  ani  Hygiene.  By  B.  F.  Kaupp,  M.  S., 
D.  V.  M.,  Poultry  Investigator  and  Pathologist,  North  Carolina 
Experiment  Station  i2mo  of  417  pages,  with  107  illustrations. 
Cloth,  $2.00  net.  Publishei  September.  IQ15. 

'I'his  work  gives  you  the  breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry,  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  ventilation,  poultry-house  construction,  equipment,  ridding 
stock  of  vermin,  internal  parasites,  and  other  diseases.  You  get  the 
gross  anatomy  and  functions  of  the  digestive  organs,  food-stuffs,  com- 
pounding rations,  fattening,  dressing,  packing,  seUing,  care  of  eggs, 
handling  feathers,  value  of  droppings  as  fertilizer,  caponizing,  etc.,  etc. 


Diseases  of  Swine.  With  Particular  Reference  to  Hog-Cholera. 
By  Charles  F.  Lynch,  M.  D.,  D.  V.  S.,  Terre  Haute  Veterinary 
College.  With  a  chapter  on  Castration  and  Spaying,  by  George 
R.  White,  M.  D.,  D.  V,  S.,  Tennessee.  Octavb  of  741  pages, 
illustrated.     Cloth,  $5.00  net.  Published  Noveniher,  1Q14. 

You  get  first  some  80  pages  on  the  various  breeds  of  hogs,  with  val li- 
able points  in  judging  swine.  Then  comes  an  extremely  important 
monograph  of  over  400  pages  on  hog-cholera,  giving  the  history,  causes, 
{)athology,  types,  and  treatment.  Then,  in  addition,  you  get  complete 
chapters  on  all  other  diseases  of  swine. 


Saunders'  College  Text-Books  1  I 


IDieitrnck^s  Ln^ce  Sftock  ©mi  ftke  Fainnm 

Live  Stock  on  the  Farm.  By  Wiilliam  Dietrich,  Ph.D.,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  University  of  Minnesota.  i2mo  of  275  pages, 
illustrated.  Ready  August,  1917. 

This  work  takes  up  the  entire  question  of  the  care  of  all  kinds  of  live 
stock — horses,  the  dairy  cow,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  poultry  of  all 
kinds.  There  is  a  large  section  on  feeding;  another  on  breeding  for 
special  uses,  castration,  tuberculin  test,  cholera  vaccination,  etc.,  etc. 
It  is  a  clear  presentation  of  economic  live  stock  raising,  based  on  sound 
scientific  principles.  You  are  told  how  to  select,  breed,  feed,  use,  and 
sell  animals.  Scientific  feeding  is  gone  into  very  thoroughly,  and  exact 
quantities,  costs,  and  kinds  of  food  are  detailed. 

KsiMpp^i  Aiiiisiih©inmy  ©f  itkd  Fowl 

Anatomy  of  the  Fowl.  By  B.  F.  Kaupp,  M.  S.,  D.  V.  M.,  Poultry 
Investigator  and  Pathologist,  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station. 
i2mo  of  400  pages,  illustrated.  Ready  August,  1917. 

Here  you  get  a  systematic  text-book,  based  on  laboratorj'  studies.  The 
work  takes  up  osteology,  the  articulations,  the  musculature,  the  viscera, 
the  veins,  arteries  and  lymphatics,  neurology,  the  special  senses.  There 
is  a  chapter  on  embryology  and  on  the  methods  of  preparing  specimens. 
Professor  Kaupp's  long  experience  and  special  training  in  this  field  fit 
him  most  admirably'  to  write  an  instructive  work  such  as  this  is.  It 
adequately  fills  the  need  for  an  advanced  work  in  the  study  of  poultry 
husbandry  now  being  carried  on  so  extensively. 

Edirgdj^i  HygidinKi 

Hygiene.  By  D.  H.  Bergey,  M.  D.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Bac- 
teriology, University  of  Pennsylvania.  Octavo  of  529  pages,  illus- 
trated.    Cloth,  $3.00  net.  Fifth  Edition — September,  J 914. 

Dr.  Bergey  gives  first  place  to  ventilation,  water-supply,  sewage,  indus- 
trial and  school  hygiene,  etc.  His  long  experience  in  teaching  this  sub- 
ject has  made  him  familiar  with  teaching  needs.  He  gives  you  not  only 
the  latest  investigations  in  the  laboratory,  but  also  practical  advances 
made  in  administration  and  application  of  sanitary  measures. 

J.  N.  Hurty,  M.  D.,  Indiana  University:  "  It  is  one  of  the  best  books 
with  which  I  am  acquainted." 


12  Saunders*  College  Text-Books 


ard  ©f  EimiMirci 


Immediate  Care  of  the  Injured.  By  Albert  S.  Morrow,  M.  D., 
Adjunct  Professor  of  Surgery,  New  York  Polyclinic.  360  pages, 
242  il!us      Cloth,  $2.50  net.  Second  Edition — March,  IQ12. 

Dr.  Morrow's  book  tells  you  just  what  to  do  in  any  emergency,  and  it 
is  illustrated  in  such  a  practical  way  taat  the  idea  is  caught  at  once. 
There  is  no  book  better  adapted  to  first-aid  class  work. 

Health:  "  Here  is  a  book  that  should  find  a  place  in  every  workshop 
and  factory  and  should  be  made  a  text-book  in  our  schools." 

A^meirnciiini  Hll^uisfeiratedl  Oncftnomimiry 

American  Illustrated  Medical  Dictionary.  By  W.A.Newman 
DoKLAND,  M,  D.,  Member  of  Committee  on  Nomenclature  and 
Classification  of  Diseases,  American  Medical  Association.  Octava 
of  1 137  pages,  324  illustrations,  iig  in  colors.  Flexible  leather, 
$4.50  net;  indexed,  $5.00  net.  Eighth  Edition — August,  191s. 

If  you  want  an  unabridged  medical  dictionary,  this  is  the  one  you 
want.  It  is  down  to  the  minute;  its  definitions  are  concise,  yet  accu- 
rate and  clear;  it  is  extremely  easy  to  consult;  it  defines  all  the  newest 
terms  in  medicine  and  the  allied  subjects;  it  is  profusely  illustrated. 
John  B.  Murphy,  M.  D.,  Northwestern  University:  "  It  is  unquestion- 
ably the  best  lexicon  on  medical  topics  in  the  English  language,  and 
with  all  that,  it  is  so  compact  for  ready  reference."  * 

Amsiricaim  Pockdlh  Dn€{Li©inisiiry 

American  Pocket  Medical  Dictionary.  Edited  by  W.  A.  New- 
man Borland,  M.  D.  693 'pages.  Flexible  leather,  $1.25  net; 
thumb  index,  $1.50  net.  Ninth  Edition— Aprit,  1915. 

A  dictionary  must  be  full  enough  to  give  the  student  the  information 
he  seeks,  clearly  and  simply,  yet  it  must  not  confuse  him  with  detail. 
The  editor  has  kept  this  in  mind  in  compiling  this  Pocket  Dictionary. 

I.  V.  S.  Stanislaus,  M.  D.,  Medico-Chirurgicdl  College:  "We  have 
been  strongly  recommending  this  little  book  as  beii.g  the  very  best." 

DESCRIPTIVE   CIRCULARS   OF  ALL   BOOKS    SENT   FREE 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 

Cummings  Scliool  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 

Tufts  University 
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